伊曼努尔·康德

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Fichte’s Attempt at a Critique of All Revelation (1792), published anonymously, was taken for Kant’s; his Wissenschaftslehre (1794) sought to derive Kant’s results from a single principle. J. G. Fichte, Versuch einer Critik aller Offenbarung (1792); Grundlage der gesammten Wissenschaftslehre (1794); SEP “Johann Gottlieb Fichte”

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Schleiermacher’s early essays On the Highest Good (1789) and On Freedom (1790–92) worked through Kant’s ethics, rejecting its linking of virtue and happiness in the highest good. F. Schleiermacher, Über das höchste Gut (1789); Über die Freiheit (1790–92); SEP “Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher”

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Hölderlin studied Kant from his Tübingen years and, writing to his brother (1799), called him ‘the Moses of our nation’, leading it out of Egyptian slackness. F. Hölderlin, letter to his brother Karl Gok, 1 Jan. 1799

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In his Essay on the Concept of Republicanism (1796) Schlegel took up Kant’s Toward Perpetual Peace (1795) but argued, against Kant, that republicanism is necessarily democratic. F. Schlegel, Versuch über den Begriff des Republikanismus (1796); I. Kant, Zum ewigen Frieden (1795); SEP “Friedrich Schlegel”

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In Ideas for a Philosophy of Nature (1797) Schelling took up Kant’s dynamic theory of matter as attractive and repulsive forces (Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science, 1786). F. W. J. Schelling, Ideen zu einer Philosophie der Natur (1797); I. Kant, Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Naturwissenschaft (1786); SEP “Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling”

依据: 亦见于 Wikidata · Wikidata · InPhO

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Schopenhauer kept Kant’s distinction of appearance and thing in itself, calling the latter will, and appended a Critique of the Kantian Philosophy to his main work (1819). A. Schopenhauer, Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung (1819), appendix “Kritik der Kantischen Philosophie”; SEP “Arthur Schopenhauer”

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In ‘The Transcendentalist’ (1842) Emerson traced his movement’s name to Kant’s use of ‘transcendental’, a Kant he knew largely at second hand, through Coleridge and Carlyle. R. W. Emerson, “The Transcendentalist” (1842); SEP “Ralph Waldo Emerson”

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Dilthey called his project a ‘critique of historical reason’, doing for the human sciences what Kant had done for natural science (Introduction to the Human Sciences, 1883). W. Dilthey, Einleitung in die Geisteswissenschaften (1883); SEP “Wilhelm Dilthey”

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In The Methods of Ethics (1874) Sidgwick accepted Kant’s universalisability principle as a self-evident axiom of justice, holding that alone it cannot settle what we ought to do. H. Sidgwick, The Methods of Ethics (1874); “The Kantian Conception of Free Will”, Mind (1888); SEP “Henry Sidgwick”

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Peirce studied the Critique of Pure Reason for years in his youth and took the name ‘pragmatism’ from Kant’s distinction between pragmatisch and praktisch (‘What Pragmatism Is’, 1905). C. S. Peirce, “What Pragmatism Is”, The Monist (1905); SEP “Charles Sanders Peirce”

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In Kant’s Theory of Experience (1871) Cohen read the first Critique as a theory of the conditions of scientific knowledge, starting from the ‘fact’ of mathematical natural science. H. Cohen, Kants Theorie der Erfahrung (1871; 2nd ed. 1885); SEP “Hermann Cohen”

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Durkheim gave Kant’s categories a social origin: time, space and causality derive from collective life, above all religion (Les formes élémentaires de la vie religieuse, 1912). É. Durkheim, Les formes élémentaires de la vie religieuse (1912), introduction; S. Lukes, Émile Durkheim: His Life and Work (1973)

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Simmel recast Kant’s ‘How is nature possible?’ as ‘How is society possible?’, answering with a priori forms through which individuals experience themselves as members of society (Soziologie, 1908). G. Simmel, Soziologie (1908), “Exkurs über das Problem: Wie ist Gesellschaft möglich?”; Kant. Sechzehn Vorlesungen (1904); D. Frisby, Georg Simmel (1984)

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Hilbert took Kant’s sentence on intuitions, concepts and ideas as motto of the Grundlagen der Geometrie (1899) and grounded finitism in Kant’s extra-logical content of mathematics (1926). D. Hilbert, Grundlagen der Geometrie (1899); “Über das Unendliche”, Mathematische Annalen 95 (1926); I. Kant, Kritik der reinen Vernunft (1781/87); SEP “Hilbert’s Program”

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Uexküll applied Kant’s thesis that the forms of perception belong to the subject to animals, each living in its own Umwelt (Theoretische Biologie, 1920). J. von Uexküll, Theoretische Biologie (1920); Umwelt und Innenwelt der Tiere (1909)

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Through Rickert’s neo-Kantianism Weber took over Kant’s gulf between is and ought: science cannot ground value judgements, and concepts select from an infinite reality (‘Objectivity’ essay, 1904). M. Weber, “Die ‚Objektivität‘ sozialwissenschaftlicher und sozialpolitischer Erkenntnis” (1904); SEP “Max Weber”; SEP “Neo-Kantianism”

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Liang Qichao introduced Kant to Chinese readers via Japanese sources in an essay series of 1903–04, explaining Kant’s moral freedom through Buddhism and Wang Yangming’s innate knowing. Liang Qichao, “Jinshi diyi dazhe Kangde zhi xueshuo”, Xinmin congbao (1903–04); H. Chang, Liang Ch’i-ch’ao and Intellectual Transition in China (1971)

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Cassirer, trained in Marburg Neo-Kantianism, widened Kant’s critique of reason into a critique of culture covering myth, language and science (Philosophie der symbolischen Formen, 1923–29). E. Cassirer, Philosophie der symbolischen Formen I–III (1923–29); Substanzbegriff und Funktionsbegriff (1910); Kants Leben und Lehre (1918); SEP “Ernst Cassirer”

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K. C. Bhattacharya started from Kant’s limits of theoretical knowledge but argued in The Subject as Freedom (1930) that the subject is realised through progressive freedom from objectivity. K. C. Bhattacharya, The Subject as Freedom (1930); N. Bhushan & J. L. Garfield (eds.), Indian Philosophy in English (2011)

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Einstein, who read Kant as a schoolboy, held that physical concepts are free creations, not abstracted from experience, but rejected their a priori status (‘Reply to Criticisms’, 1949). A. Einstein, “Reply to Criticisms”, in P. A. Schilpp (ed.), Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist (1949); “Geometrie und Erfahrung” (1921); SEP “Einstein’s Philosophy of Science”

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Jaspers appended a study of Kant’s doctrine of ideas to his Psychology of Worldviews (1919) and took Kant’s limits of knowledge as the frame of his Philosophy (1932). K. Jaspers, Psychologie der Weltanschauungen (1919), appendix “Kants Ideenlehre”; Philosophie (1932); SEP “Karl Jaspers”

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Carnap kept a Kantian synthetic a priori for the topological structure of intuitive space (Der Raum, 1922); Friedman reads the Aufbau (1928) as recasting neo-Kantian constitution. R. Carnap, Der Raum (1922); Der logische Aufbau der Welt (1928); M. Friedman, Reconsidering Logical Positivism (1999); SEP “Rudolf Carnap”

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In ‘On the Programme of the Coming Philosophy’ (1918) Benjamin kept Kant’s system as the frame but demanded a higher concept of experience that includes religious experience. W. Benjamin, “Über das Programm der kommenden Philosophie” (written 1917–18, printed 1963); SEP “Walter Benjamin”

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Blaga set unconscious ‘abyssal categories’ beside Kant’s categories of understanding (Horizon and Style, 1935) and engaged with Kant’s theory of knowledge in his Trilogy of Knowledge (1943). L. Blaga, Orizont și stil (1935); Trilogia cunoașterii (1943)

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Horkheimer took his doctorate (1922) and habilitation (1925) under Hans Cornelius with studies of Kant’s Critique of Judgement as the link between theoretical and practical philosophy. M. Horkheimer, Zur Antinomie der teleologischen Urteilskraft (1922); Über Kants Kritik der Urteilskraft als Bindeglied zwischen theoretischer und praktischer Philosophie (1925)

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Piaget kept Kant’s necessary categories but held that they are constructed in development, not given, a position he described as a dynamic Kantianism (Introduction à l’épistémologie génétique, 1950). J. Piaget, Introduction à l’épistémologie génétique (1950); Sagesse et illusions de la philosophie (1965)

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Popper called demarcation ‘Kant’s problem’ and reinterpreted Kant’s claim that the intellect prescribes its laws to nature: we propose conjectures, which nature may defeat (Conjectures and Refutations, 1963). K. R. Popper, Logik der Forschung (1934); “Kant’s Critique and Cosmology” (1954), in Conjectures and Refutations (1963); SEP “Karl Popper”

依据: 亦见于 InPhO · InPhO

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Adorno lectured on Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason (1959) and devoted the model on freedom in Negative Dialectics (1966) to a metacritique of Kant’s practical reason. T. W. Adorno, Kants „Kritik der reinen Vernunft“ (lectures 1959, publ. 1995); Negative Dialektik (1966), “Freiheit. Zur Metakritik der praktischen Vernunft”

依据: 亦见于 Wikidata · Wikidata · InPhO

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Jonas recast Kant’s imperative for technology: ‘act so that the effects of your action are compatible with the permanence of genuine human life’ (Das Prinzip Verantwortung, 1979). H. Jonas, Das Prinzip Verantwortung (1979)

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Sartre agreed with Kant that freedom wills its own and others’ freedom, but held formal, universal principles too abstract to define action (L’existentialisme est un humanisme, 1946). J.-P. Sartre, L’existentialisme est un humanisme (lecture 1945, publ. 1946)

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Arendt read Kant’s judgement of taste, with its ‘enlarged mentality’, as the model of political judgement (Lectures on Kant’s Political Philosophy, given 1970, publ. 1982). H. Arendt, Lectures on Kant’s Political Philosophy, ed. R. Beiner (1982); I. Kant, Kritik der Urteilskraft (1790); SEP “Hannah Arendt”

依据: 亦见于 Wikidata · Wikidata · InPhO

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Bobbio studied Kant’s philosophy of law (1957) and took Kant’s ‘sign of history’ in the French Revolution as evidence of progress in rights (L’età dei diritti, 1990). N. Bobbio, Diritto e stato nel pensiero di Emanuele Kant (1957); L’età dei diritti (1990); I. Kant, Der Streit der Fakultäten (1798)

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Mou Zongsan, who translated Kant’s three Critiques, kept Kant’s framework but argued that moral experience grants humans intellectual intuition (Intellectual Intuition and Chinese Philosophy, 1971). Mou Zongsan, Zhi de zhijue yu Zhongguo zhexue (1971); Xianxiang yu wu zishen (1975); IEP “Mou Zongsan”

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Sellars took up Kant’s distinction between sensibility and understanding for his account of sensory and conceptual elements in perception (Science and Metaphysics: Variations on Kantian Themes, 1968). W. Sellars, Science and Metaphysics: Variations on Kantian Themes (John Locke Lectures 1965–66; publ. 1968); SEP “Wilfrid Sellars”

依据: 亦见于 InPhO · InPhO

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Hare built his universal prescriptivism on Kant’s universalizability and argued that Kant’s test leads to utilitarian results (Freedom and Reason, 1963; ‘Could Kant Have Been a Utilitarian?’, 1993). R. M. Hare, Freedom and Reason (1963); Moral Thinking (1981); “Could Kant Have Been a Utilitarian?”, Utilitas 5 (1993); SEP “Richard Mervyn Hare”

依据: 亦见于 InPhO · InPhO

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Strawson reconstructed the analytic core of Kant’s Critique – the conditions of any experience intelligible to us – while rejecting transcendental idealism (The Bounds of Sense, 1966). P. F. Strawson, The Bounds of Sense (1966); Individuals (1959); SEP “Peter Frederick Strawson”

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Rawls read the original position of justice as fairness as a procedural expression of Kant’s autonomy (A Theory of Justice, 1971; ‘Kantian Constructivism in Moral Theory’, 1980). J. Rawls, A Theory of Justice (1971); “Kantian Constructivism in Moral Theory”, Journal of Philosophy 77 (1980); SEP “John Rawls”

依据: 亦见于 Wikidata · Wikidata · InPhO

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Lyotard took from Kant the heterogeneity of the faculties and the sublime as presentation of the unpresentable (Le différend, 1983; Leçons sur l’Analytique du sublime, 1991). J.-F. Lyotard, Le différend (1983); L’enthousiasme. La critique kantienne de l’histoire (1986); Leçons sur l’Analytique du sublime (1991); SEP “Jean François Lyotard”

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Deleuze read Kant’s doctrine of the faculties and their discordant accord in the sublime (La philosophie critique de Kant, 1963) and recast transcendental philosophy as ‘transcendental empiricism’ (1968). G. Deleuze, La philosophie critique de Kant (1963); “L’idée de genèse dans l’esthétique de Kant” (1963); Différence et répétition (1968); SEP “Gilles Deleuze”

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In Critique of Critical Philosophy (1979) Li Zehou read Kant’s a priori forms of knowledge and morality as products of collective practice, calling this process ‘sedimentation’. Li Zehou, Pipan zhexue de pipan: Kangde shuping (1979), Eng. A New Approach to Kant (2018); J. S. Rošker, Following His Own Path: Li Zehou and Contemporary Chinese Philosophy (2019)

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Al-Azm took his doctorate at Yale on Kant and wrote Kant’s Theory of Time (1967) and The Origins of Kant’s Arguments in the Antinomies (1972). S. J. al-Azm, Kant’s Theory of Time (1967); The Origins of Kant’s Arguments in the Antinomies (Oxford, 1972)

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Nozick grounded his side constraints in Kant’s principle that individuals are ends and not merely means, ruling out sacrificing some for others (Anarchy, State, and Utopia, 1974). R. Nozick, Anarchy, State, and Utopia (1974); SEP “Libertarianism”

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In Transcritique (2001) Karatani read Kant’s critique as a movement between perspectives, a ‘pronounced parallax’, and the realm of ends as a task for associations. Karatani Kōjin, Toransukuritīku (2001), tr. S. Kohso, Transcritique: On Kant and Marx (2003)

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O’Neill read Kant as a constructivist: moral principles are those all could adopt, not derived from a prior good (Constructions of Reason, 1989; Towards Justice and Virtue, 1996). O. O’Neill, Constructions of Reason (1989); Towards Justice and Virtue (1996)

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Žižek read Kant’s paralogisms, in which the subject cannot know itself as a substance, as anticipating Lacan’s empty subject (Tarrying with the Negative, 1993). S. Žižek, Tarrying with the Negative: Kant, Hegel, and the Critique of Ideology (1993)

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Benhabib took Kant’s cosmopolitan right of hospitality as the starting point for her account of the rights of migrants and refugees (The Rights of Others, 2004). S. Benhabib, The Rights of Others: Aliens, Residents, and Citizens (2004); Another Cosmopolitanism (2006); I. Kant, Zum ewigen Frieden (1795)

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Korsgaard derived normativity from Kant’s reflective agent, who cannot act without some practical identity and so must value humanity itself (The Sources of Normativity, 1996). C. M. Korsgaard, The Sources of Normativity (Tanner Lectures 1992; publ. 1996); Creating the Kingdom of Ends (1996)

依据: 亦见于 InPhO · InPhO

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Appiah counted Kant’s proposal of a league of nations (Perpetual Peace, 1795) among the Enlightenment sources of his cosmopolitanism of universal concern and respect for difference (Cosmopolitanism, 2006). K. A. Appiah, Cosmopolitanism: Ethics in a World of Strangers (2006); I. Kant, Zum ewigen Frieden (1795)

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Floridi gave his constructionism a Kantian shape: things in themselves remain unknowable, and we know systems through models at chosen levels of abstraction (The Philosophy of Information, 2011). L. Floridi, “The Method of Levels of Abstraction”, Minds and Machines 18 (2008); The Philosophy of Information (2011)

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Forst grounded his theory of justice in a Kantian, reflexive ‘right to justification’ that each person holds as a moral agent (Das Recht auf Rechtfertigung, 2007). R. Forst, Das Recht auf Rechtfertigung. Elemente einer konstruktivistischen Theorie der Gerechtigkeit (2007)

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