अरस्तू
अरस्तू के अनुसार, ज्ञान संसार के सावधान अवलोकन से शुरू होता है, हर चीज़ किसी प्रयोजन की ओर प्रयासरत है, और अच्छा जीवन सद्गुणों के अभ्यास में है – हर सद्गुण अति और अल्पता के बीच का मध्यम मार्ग है, जैसे साहस कायरता और दुस्साहस के बीच।
पृष्ठभूमि
ज्ञान के लगभग हर क्षेत्र को व्यवस्थित किया – तर्कशास्त्र, भौतिकी, तत्त्वमीमांसा, नीतिशास्त्र, राजनीति। रूप (form) पदार्थ में स्वयं को साकार करता है।
मुख्य विचार
- न्याय-अनुमान (सिलोजिस्टिक)
- चार कारण
- मध्यम मार्ग के रूप में सद्गुण
- यूडेमोनिया
गुरु: प्लेटो
प्रभाव
जिनसे प्रभावित 3
एंपेडोक्लीज़
जिनसे प्रभावित ✓
Aristotle took over Empedocles’ four elements as the simple bodies of the sublunary world, crediting him as the first to posit four (Metaphysics I.4). Aristotle, Metaphysics I.4, 985a31–33; On Generation and Corruption II.1–6; SEP “Empedocles”
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एंपेडोक्लीज़ › लगभग 494–434 ईसा पूर्व
सुकरात
जिनसे प्रभावित ✓
Aristotle credited Socrates with inductive arguments and universal definition, the starting point of the theory of Forms, but rejected his denial of weakness of will (Metaphysics; Nicomachean Ethics). Aristotle, Metaphysics XIII.4, 1078b27–30; I.6, 987b1–6; Nicomachean Ethics VII.2, 1145b21–27
सुकरात › 470–399 ईसा पूर्व
डेमोक्रिटस
जिनसे प्रभावित ✓
Aristotle treated Democritus as the earlier physicist who argued most from nature, discussing his atoms and void at length while rejecting both (On Generation and Corruption I.2, I.8). Aristotle, On Generation and Corruption I.2, I.8; Physics IV.6–9; SEP “Democritus”
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डेमोक्रिटस › लगभग 460–370 ईसा पूर्व
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया 60
अबू अली सीना
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया ✓
Avicenna’s Book of the Cure (al-Shifa) follows the order of Aristotle’s corpus from logic to metaphysics, but reworks it into a system of his own. Ibn Sina, al-Shifa; D. Gutas, Avicenna and the Aristotelian Tradition (1988; 2nd ed. 2014); SEP “Ibn Sina [Avicenna]”
अबू अली सीना › 980–1037
थामस एक्विनास
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया ✓
Aquinas made Aristotle’s philosophy of nature and the soul the framework of his theology and, chiefly in 1268–73, commented on a dozen of his works. Thomas Aquinas, Sentencia libri De anima; In Metaphysicam; Sententia libri Ethicorum; SEP “Thomas Aquinas”
थामस एक्विनास › लगभग 1225–1274
गॉटफ़्रीड विल्हेल्म लाइबनित्स
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया ✓
Leibniz rehabilitated Aristotle’s substantial forms against the mechanists in the Discourse on Metaphysics (1686) and later called his simple substances ‘entelechies’ (Monadology, 1714). G. W. Leibniz, Discours de métaphysique (1686); Monadologie (1714); SEP “Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz”
गॉटफ़्रीड विल्हेल्म लाइबनित्स › 1646–1716
एडम स्मिथ
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Smith ranked Aristotle’s virtue as a mean among the systems of propriety, saying it agrees ‘pretty exactly’ with his own account (The Theory of Moral Sentiments, 1759). A. Smith, The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759; 6th ed. 1790), part VII, sect. ii, ch. 1
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एडम स्मिथ › 1723–1790
गेऑर्ग विल्हेल्म फ़्रीडरिश हेगल
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया ✓
Hegel closed his Encyclopaedia (1830) with Aristotle’s account of the divine thought that thinks itself, quoted in Greek from Book Lambda of the Metaphysics. G. W. F. Hegel, Enzyklopädie der philosophischen Wissenschaften (1830), conclusion; Aristotle, Metaphysics, Book Lambda; SEP “Hegel”
गेऑर्ग विल्हेल्म फ़्रीडरिश हेगल › 1770–1831
मार्टिन हाइडेगर
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया ✓
Heidegger read Aristotle’s ethics and ontology phenomenologically in early lectures and the ‘Natorp report’ (1922, publ. 1989), groundwork for the analysis of Dasein in Being and Time (1927). M. Heidegger, “Phänomenologische Interpretationen zu Aristoteles (Anzeige der hermeneutischen Situation)” (1922; publ. 1989); Platon: Sophistes (lectures 1924–25; publ. 1992); Sein und Zeit (1927); SEP “Martin Heidegger”
मार्टिन हाइडेगर › 1889–1976
सभी दिखाएँ (60)कम दिखाएँ
प्लोटिनस
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Plotinus took over Aristotle’s self-thinking divine intellect as his second principle, Intellect, but set the One above it; Porphyry notes Aristotle’s Metaphysics is condensed in the Enneads. Porphyry, Life of Plotinus 14; Plotinus, Enneads V.3, VI.1–3; Aristotle, Metaphysics XII.9; SEP “Plotinus”
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प्लोटिनस › 204–270
पोरफ़िरी
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Porphyry wrote the Isagoge as an introduction to Aristotle’s Categories and held his logic compatible with Plato’s metaphysics, making Aristotle part of the Platonist curriculum. Porphyry, Isagoge; On Aristotle’s Categories (by question and answer); SEP “Porphyry”
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पोरफ़िरी › लगभग 234–305
प्रोक्लस
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया ✓
In the Neoplatonic curriculum Proclus first read Aristotle’s logic, ethics, politics, physics and theology with Syrianus as a preparation for Plato, as his biographer Marinus reports. Marinus, Proclus or On Happiness; SEP “Proclus”
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प्रोक्लस › 412–485
बोएथिउस
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया ✓
Boethius planned to translate all of Aristotle, to comment on him and show his agreement with Plato; his logical translations became the basis of early medieval logic. Boethius, In Aristotelis Peri hermeneias, editio secunda II, prologue; SEP “Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius”
बोएथिउस › लगभग 477–524
अल-किंदी
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Al-Kindi’s circle translated Aristotle’s Metaphysics, and his On First Philosophy took up its idea of a science of first causes while arguing against the world’s eternity. al-Kindi, On First Philosophy, tr. A. L. Ivry, Al-Kindi’s Metaphysics (1974); P. Adamson, Al-Kindi (2007); SEP “al-Kindi”
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अल-किंदी › लगभग 801–873
अल-फराबी
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया ✓
Al-Farabi commented on Aristotle’s logical works, notably On Interpretation, and surveyed his whole corpus in The Philosophy of Aristotle; later tradition called him the ‘Second Teacher’. al-Farabi, Commentary on De interpretatione, tr. F. W. Zimmermann (1981); The Philosophy of Aristotle, tr. M. Mahdi, Alfarabi’s Philosophy of Plato and Aristotle (1962); SEP “al-Farabi”
अल-फराबी › लगभग 872–950
मिस्कवेह
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Miskawayh built the Refinement of Character on Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics in Ishaq ibn Hunayn’s Arabic translation: virtue as a mean between two vices and happiness as the perfection of the rational soul. Miskawayh, Tahdhīb al-akhlāq; O. Leaman, “Ibn Miskawayh”, in S. H. Nasr and O. Leaman (eds.), History of Islamic Philosophy (1996)
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मिस्कवेह › लगभग 932–1030
इब्न हज़्म
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
In the Approach to the Limits of Logic Ibn Hazm set out Aristotle’s logic, replacing the usual examples with examples from law and grammar, and defended it as useful for every science, the religious ones included. Ibn Ḥazm, al-Taqrīb li-ḥadd al-manṭiq; C. Adang, M. Fierro and S. Schmidtke (eds.), Ibn Hazm of Cordoba (2013)
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इब्न हज़्म › 994–1064
पीटर अबेलार्ड
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Knowing only Aristotle’s Categories and On Interpretation in Boethius’ Latin, Abelard built on them his logic and his view that universals are words, not things. Abelard, Logica ‘Ingredientibus’; Dialectica; SEP “Peter Abelard”
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पीटर अबेलार्ड › 1079–1142
इब्न बाजा
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Ibn Bajja commented on Aristotle’s Physics and On the Soul; his objection that motion in a void need not be instantaneous was reported and discussed by Averroes. E. A. Moody, “Galileo and Avempace”, Journal of the History of Ideas 12 (1951); SEP “Ibn Bajja [Avempace]”
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इब्न बाजा › लगभग 1085–1138
इब्न रश्द
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया ✓
Averroes commented on almost all of Aristotle’s works, in short, middle and long commentaries, seeking to recover Aristotle’s own doctrine from later Neoplatonic additions. SEP “Ibn Rushd [Averroes]”; H. A. Davidson, Alfarabi, Avicenna, and Averroes, on Intellect (1992)
इब्न रश्द › 1126–1198
मैमोनिदेस
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया ✓
Maimonides accepted Aristotle’s account of the sublunary world as demonstrated, but held his arguments for the world’s eternity to be inconclusive (Guide of the Perplexed, c. 1190). Maimonides, Guide of the Perplexed (c. 1190), tr. S. Pines (1963); SEP “Maimonides”
मैमोनिदेस › 1138–1204
अल्बर्ट माग्नुस
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Albert set out to make the whole of Aristotle intelligible to Latin readers in paraphrases of logic, physics, metaphysics, ethics and the life sciences, using Arabic commentators. Albertus Magnus, Physica I tr. 1 c. 1 (programme); SEP “Albert the Great”
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अल्बर्ट माग्नुस › लगभग 1200–1280
नासिरुद्दीन तूसी
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Al-Tusi’s Persian logic, The Foundation of Acquisition (Asas al-iqtibas, 1244), treats the whole Aristotelian Organon, including rhetoric and poetics. Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Asas al-iqtibas (1244); Encyclopaedia Iranica “Asas al-eqtebas”
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नासिरुद्दीन तूसी › 1201–1274
रोजर बेकन
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Bacon was among the first masters to lecture on Aristotle’s natural philosophy and Metaphysics at Paris in the 1240s; his question commentaries from these years survive. Roger Bacon, Quaestiones supra libros Physicorum; Quaestiones supra Metaphysicam (Opera hactenus inedita); SEP “Roger Bacon”
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रोजर बेकन › लगभग 1219–1292
ब्राबांट का सिगर
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया ✓
Siger expounded Aristotle literally as a Paris arts master, reporting what the Philosopher held even where it conflicted with faith, as on the world’s eternity. Siger of Brabant, De aeternitate mundi; Quaestiones in tertium De anima; SEP “Siger of Brabant”
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ब्राबांट का सिगर › लगभग 1240–1284
दुन्स स्कोतुस
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Scotus took up Aristotle’s science of being as being and, siding with Avicenna, held that being is its subject and is said univocally of God and creatures. Duns Scotus, Quaestiones super libros Metaphysicorum I q. 1; Ordinatio I d. 3 p. 1 qq. 1–3; SEP “John Duns Scotus”
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दुन्स स्कोतुस › लगभग 1266–1308
पादुआ का मार्सिलियस
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Marsilius built the first discourse of Defensor pacis (1324) on Aristotle’s Politics: the city exists for living and living well, and peace is like its health. Marsilius of Padua, Defensor pacis (1324), Discourse I; A. Gewirth, Marsilius of Padua and Medieval Political Philosophy (1951)
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पादुआ का मार्सिलियस › लगभग 1275–1342
विलियम ऑफ़ ओक्कम
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया ✓
Ockham commented on Aristotle’s logic and Physics and read the categories as classes of terms, admitting only substances and qualities as distinct things (Summa logicae, c. 1323). William of Ockham, Expositio in libros Physicorum; Summa logicae I (c. 1323); SEP “William of Ockham”
विलियम ऑफ़ ओक्कम › लगभग 1287–1347
गेर्सोनिदेस (लेवी बेन गेर्शोम)
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Gersonides argued as a strict Aristotelian in method and psychology, yet departed from Aristotle in arguing that the world had a beginning (The Wars of the Lord, 1329). Gersonides, Milhamot ha-Shem (1329); SEP “Gersonides”
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गेर्सोनिदेस (लेवी बेन गेर्शोम) › 1288–1344
जॉन ब्यूरिदन
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया ✓
As a Paris arts master Buridan expounded most of Aristotle’s works in question commentaries, revising him within his framework, as with impetus in place of air pushing projectiles. John Buridan, Quaestiones super octo libros Physicorum VIII q. 12; SEP “John Buridan”
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जॉन ब्यूरिदन › लगभग 1300–1360
इब्न खल्दून
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Ibn Khaldun opened his science of civilisation with the philosophers’ dictum that the human being is political by nature, explained by the need for cooperation (Muqaddima, 1377). Ibn Khaldun, al-Muqaddima (1377), tr. F. Rosenthal (1958); Aristotle, Politics
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इब्न खल्दून › 1332–1406
क्रिस्टीन द पिज़ान
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Christine drew on Aristotle’s Politics in Nicole Oresme’s French translation for Le Livre du corps de policie (1406–07), alongside John of Salisbury. Christine de Pizan, Le Livre du corps de policie, ed. A. J. Kennedy (1998); N. Oresme, Le Livre de Politiques d’Aristote (1370s); S. Lefèvre, ‘Christine de Pizan et l’Aristote oresmien’, in proceedings of the 3rd International Christine de Pizan Colloquium (2000); K. L. Forhan, The Political Theory of Christine de Pizan (2002)
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क्रिस्टीन द पिज़ान › लगभग 1364–1430
पिएत्रो पोम्पोनात्सी
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Pomponazzi asked what Aristotle’s philosophy, read on its own terms, says about the soul, and concluded that it cannot prove immortality (De immortalitate animae, 1516). P. Pomponazzi, Tractatus de immortalitate animae (1516); SEP “Pietro Pomponazzi”
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पिएत्रो पोम्पोनात्सी › 1462–1525
जोवानी पिको देला मीरदेला
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Pico held that Aristotle agrees with Plato in substance and argued this on being and the one in De ente et uno (1491). G. Pico della Mirandola, De ente et uno (1491); Conclusiones (1486); SEP “Giovanni Pico della Mirandola”
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जोवानी पिको देला मीरदेला › 1463–1494
फ़्रांसिस्को सुआरेज़
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Suárez’s Metaphysical Disputations (1597) treat Aristotle’s metaphysics no longer as a commentary but by topics, with an index matching his questions to Aristotle’s books. F. Suárez, Disputationes metaphysicae (1597), with the Index locupletissimus in Metaphysicam Aristotelis; SEP “Francisco Suárez”
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फ़्रांसिस्को सुआरेज़ › 1548–1617
हुगो ग्रोटियस
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Grotius placed Aristotle first among the philosophers and reworked his distributive and corrective justice into attributive and expletive justice (De jure belli ac pacis, 1625). H. Grotius, De jure belli ac pacis (1625), Prolegomena; I.1.8; IEP “Hugo Grotius”
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हुगो ग्रोटियस › 1583–1645
एडमण्ड बर्क
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया ✓
Burke invoked Aristotle’s observation that a democracy has many points of resemblance with a tyranny against absolute democracy in revolutionary France (Reflections on the Revolution in France, 1790). E. Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790); Aristotle, Politics IV.4
एडमण्ड बर्क › 1729–1797
बेरनार्ड बोल्त्सानो
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Commentators trace Bolzano’s objective relation of ground and consequence (Abfolge) among truths to Aristotle’s demonstrative science; unlike Aristotle, he admitted infinite chains of grounds (Wissenschaftslehre, 1837). B. Bolzano, Wissenschaftslehre (1837); S. Roski, Bolzano’s Conception of Grounding (2017); SEP “Bernard Bolzano”
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बेरनार्ड बोल्त्सानो › 1781–1848
कार्ल मार्क्स
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
In Capital I (1867) Marx praised Aristotle’s analysis of the value form in exchange and traced its limit, missing labour as the substance of value, to Greek slavery. K. Marx, Das Kapital I (1867), on the form of value; Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, Book V; SEP “Karl Marx”
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कार्ल मार्क्स › 1818–1883
फ़्रांत्स ब्रेंटानो
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Brentano began with Aristotle: his dissertation on the manifold senses of being (1862) and Die Psychologie des Aristoteles (1867) prepared his descriptive psychology of intentional acts. F. Brentano, Von der mannigfachen Bedeutung des Seienden nach Aristoteles (1862); Die Psychologie des Aristoteles (1867); SEP “Franz Brentano”
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फ़्रांत्स ब्रेंटानो › 1838–1917
चार्ल्स सैंडर्स पियर्स
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Peirce took his term ‘abduction’ for inference to an explanatory hypothesis from Aristotle’s apagoge in the Prior Analytics, setting it beside deduction and induction. Aristotle, Prior Analytics; SEP “Abduction”; SEP “Charles Sanders Peirce”
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चार्ल्स सैंडर्स पियर्स › 1839–1914
यान उकाशेविच
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Łukasiewicz questioned Aristotle’s principle of contradiction (1910), drew three-valued logic from his problem of future contingents (1920) and axiomatised the syllogistic (Aristotle’s Syllogistic, 1951). J. Łukasiewicz, O zasadzie sprzeczności u Arystotelesa (1910); “O logice trójwartościowej”, Ruch Filozoficzny 5 (1920); Aristotle’s Syllogistic from the Standpoint of Modern Formal Logic (1951); SEP “Jan Łukasiewicz”
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यान उकाशेविच › 1878–1956
कार्ल पोलान्यी
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
In ‘Aristotle Discovers the Economy’ (1957) Polanyi read Aristotle’s distinction between householding and money-making as a response to markets beginning to disembed the economy from society. K. Polanyi, “Aristotle Discovers the Economy”, in K. Polanyi, C. M. Arensberg and H. W. Pearson (eds.), Trade and Market in the Early Empires (1957); Aristotle, Politics, Book I
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कार्ल पोलान्यी › 1886–1964
हंस-गेऑर्ग गादामर
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया ✓
Gadamer took Aristotle’s practical wisdom (phronesis) as the model of hermeneutic application: understanding, like ethical knowledge, applies the general to a concrete situation (Truth and Method, 1960). H.-G. Gadamer, Wahrheit und Methode (1960), “Die hermeneutische Aktualität des Aristoteles”; Die Idee des Guten zwischen Plato und Aristoteles (1978); SEP “Hans-Georg Gadamer”
हंस-गेऑर्ग गादामर › 1900–2002
आल्फ्रेड टार्स्की
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Tarski presented his semantic definition of truth as a precise form of Aristotle’s formula ‘to say of what is that it is … is true’ (1944). A. Tarski, “The Semantic Conception of Truth and the Foundations of Semantics”, Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 4 (1944); Aristotle, Metaphysics IV (Γ); SEP “Tarski’s Truth Definitions”
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आल्फ्रेड टार्स्की › 1901–1983
हाना आरंट
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया ✓
Arendt drew on Aristotle’s bios politikos and his distinction of praxis from poiesis in separating action from work and labour (The Human Condition, 1958). H. Arendt, The Human Condition (1958); SEP “Hannah Arendt”
हाना आरंट › 1906–1975
जे. एल. ऑस्टिन
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया ✓
Austin, trained as a classicist, read Aristotle closely and examined his concepts of the good and of happiness (‘Agathon and Eudaimonia in the Ethics of Aristotle’, publ. 1967). J. L. Austin, “Agathon and Eudaimonia in the Ethics of Aristotle”, in J. M. E. Moravcsik (ed.), Aristotle: A Collection of Critical Essays (1967); SEP “John Langshaw Austin”
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जे. एल. ऑस्टिन › 1911–1960
अलेक्सिस कागामे
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Kagame read the grammar of Kinyarwanda as yielding four categories of being, which he compared with Aristotle’s ten (La Philosophie bantu-rwandaise de l’être, 1956). A. Kagame, La Philosophie bantu-rwandaise de l’être (1956); La Philosophie bantu comparée (1976)
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अलेक्सिस कागामे › 1912–1981
शाइम पेरेलमान
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
With Lucie Olbrechts-Tyteca, Perelman revived Aristotle’s dialectical and rhetorical reasoning as a ‘new rhetoric’ of argumentation about values (Traité de l’argumentation, 1958). C. Perelman and L. Olbrechts-Tyteca, Traité de l’argumentation: La nouvelle rhétorique (1958)
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शाइम पेरेलमान › 1912–1984
पॉल रिक्यूर
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Ricœur built his theory of narrative on Aristotle’s Poetics, reading muthos as emplotment and mimesis as a threefold process (Time and Narrative I, 1983). P. Ricœur, Temps et récit I (1983); SEP “Paul Ricoeur”
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पॉल रिक्यूर › 1913–2005
जी. ई. एम. एन्सकॉम्ब
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया ✓
Anscombe took Aristotle’s practical syllogism as a model of intentional action (Intention, 1957) and urged that ethics start from psychology and the virtues (‘Modern Moral Philosophy’, 1958). G. E. M. Anscombe, Intention (1957); “Modern Moral Philosophy”, Philosophy 33 (1958); SEP “Gertrude Elizabeth Margaret Anscombe”
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जी. ई. एम. एन्सकॉम्ब › 1919–2001
मैरी मिजली
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Midgley defended, with Aristotle, a specific human nature whose characteristic needs and capacities set the conditions of a good human life (Beast and Man, 1978). M. Midgley, Beast and Man: The Roots of Human Nature (1978)
साक्ष्य: InPhO में भी · InPhO
मैरी मिजली › 1919–2018
फ़िलिप्पा फ़ुट
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया ✓
Foot built on Aristotle’s link between virtue and the good of living things: human virtues are natural goodness relative to the human life form (Natural Goodness, 2001). P. Foot, Natural Goodness (2001); Virtues and Vices and Other Essays in Moral Philosophy (1978); SEP “Philippa Foot”
फ़िलिप्पा फ़ुट › 1920–2010
एलास्डेयर मैकिन्टायर
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
MacIntyre answered the choice ‘Nietzsche or Aristotle’ with Aristotle, recasting the virtues as excellences acquired within practices, narratives and traditions (After Virtue, 1981). A. MacIntyre, After Virtue (1981); SEP “Virtue Ethics”
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एलास्डेयर मैकिन्टायर › 1929–2025
बर्नार्ड विलियम्स
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Williams began ethics with Socrates’ question how one should live and examined Aristotle’s attempt to ground ethics in human well-being (Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy, 1985). B. Williams, Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy (1985); Shame and Necessity (1993); SEP “Bernard Williams”
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बर्नार्ड विलियम्स › 1929–2003
अमर्त्य सेन
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Sen cited Aristotle’s remark that wealth is merely useful for the sake of something else and linked capabilities to Aristotelian functioning (Development as Freedom, 1999). A. Sen, Development as Freedom (1999); “Capability and Well-Being”, in M. C. Nussbaum and A. Sen (eds.), The Quality of Life (1993); Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics I.5
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अमर्त्य सेन › जन्म 1933
क्वामे ज्येकी
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Gyekye, trained in Greek and Arabic philosophy, translated Ibn al-Tayyib’s commentary on Porphyry’s Isagoge, the gateway to Aristotle’s logic (Arabic Logic, 1979). K. Gyekye (trans.), Arabic Logic: Ibn al-Tayyib’s Commentary on Porphyry’s Eisagoge (1979); An Essay on African Philosophical Thought (1987)
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क्वामे ज्येकी › 1939–2019
जोरजो आगाम्बेन
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Agamben took from Aristotle the potentiality not to be (adynamia; ‘Bartleby, o della contingenza’, 1993) and the contrast of life and good life opening Homo Sacer (1995). G. Agamben, “Bartleby, o della contingenza”, in G. Deleuze and G. Agamben, Bartleby. La formula della creazione (1993); Homo sacer (1995); Aristotle, Metaphysics; Politics; SEP “Aristotle”
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जोरजो आगाम्बेन › जन्म 1942
मार्था नस्बॉम
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया ✓
Nussbaum grounded her capabilities approach in Aristotle’s idea of human functioning (‘Nature, Function, and Capability’, 1988) and studied his ethics of fragile goods (The Fragility of Goodness, 1986). M. C. Nussbaum, The Fragility of Goodness (1986); “Nature, Function, and Capability: Aristotle on Political Distribution”, Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy, suppl. vol. (1988)
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मार्था नस्बॉम › जन्म 1947
क्रिस्टीन कोर्सगार्ड
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Korsgaard compared Aristotle and Kant on the source of value (1986) and drew on Aristotle’s view of action and form in arguing that agents constitute themselves (Self-Constitution, 2009). C. M. Korsgaard, “Aristotle and Kant on the Source of Value”, Ethics 96 (1986); Self-Constitution: Agency, Identity, and Integrity (2009)
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क्रिस्टीन कोर्सगार्ड › जन्म 1952
माइकल सैंडेल
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Sandel drew on Aristotle’s teleological reasoning – justice as allocating goods by their purpose – to question liberal neutrality (Justice: What’s the Right Thing to Do?, 2009). M. J. Sandel, Justice: What’s the Right Thing to Do? (2009); The Case against Perfection (2007)
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माइकल सैंडेल › जन्म 1953
मिरांडा फ़्रिकर
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Fricker modelled testimonial and hermeneutical justice as Aristotelian virtues of the hearer, a trained, second-nature sensibility that corrects prejudice in judging credibility (Epistemic Injustice, 2007). M. Fricker, Epistemic Injustice: Power and the Ethics of Knowing (2007)
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मिरांडा फ़्रिकर › जन्म 1966
शैनन वैलर
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Vallor modelled her ‘technomoral wisdom’ on Aristotle’s practical wisdom and used virtue ethics as a frame for living well with emerging technologies (Technology and the Virtues, 2016). S. Vallor, Technology and the Virtues: A Philosophical Guide to a Future Worth Wanting (2016)
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शैनन वैलर › समकालीन
आलोचना
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित 26
जॉन फ़िलोपोनस जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Philoponus wrote commentaries on Aristotle’s Physics, On the Soul and logic and worked inside his framework while revising it, as with an impressed force for projectiles. Philoponus, In Physica; In De anima; In Analytica priora; SEP “John Philoponus”
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जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Philoponus attacked Aristotle’s eternal world and fifth element (Against Aristotle on the Eternity of the World) and explained projectile motion by an impressed force instead of the air. Philoponus, Contra Aristotelem (fragments, ed. C. Wildberg, 1987); In Physica 639–642 Vitelli; SEP “John Philoponus”
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जॉन फ़िलोपोनस › लगभग 490–570
बार्तोलोमे दे लास कासास जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
At Valladolid (1550–51) Las Casas turned Aristotle against Sepúlveda, distinguishing kinds of barbarians to show that the Indigenous peoples were not natural slaves (Apologia, c. 1552). B. de las Casas, Apologia (c. 1552), trans. S. Poole, In Defense of the Indians (1974); L. Hanke, Aristotle and the American Indians (1959)
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जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Against Sepúlveda at Valladolid (1550–51) Las Casas denied that Aristotle’s natural slavery applied to the peoples of America, who were fully capable of reason; in an earlier dispute he had bidden Aristotle farewell in the name of Christian charity. B. de Las Casas, Apologia (c. 1552); Historia de las Indias, book III (on the dispute of 1519); L. Hanke, Aristotle and the American Indians (1959)
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बार्तोलोमे दे लास कासास › 1484–1566
थॉमस हॉब्स
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Hobbes wrote that scarcely anything is more absurd than Aristotle’s Metaphysics or more repugnant to government than his Politics, attacking ‘separated essences’ (Leviathan, 1651, ch. 46). T. Hobbes, Leviathan (1651), ch. 46
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थॉमस हॉब्स › 1588–1679
रने देकार्त
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Descartes rejected the scholastic-Aristotelian substantial forms and real qualities, explaining nature by extension and motion and banishing final causes from physics (letter to Regius, January 1642; Meditations IV). Descartes to Regius, Jan. 1642 (AT III 491–510); Meditationes IV (AT VII 55); Principia philosophiae IV §§198–203; SEP “Descartes’ Physics”
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रने देकार्त › 1596–1650
जॉन लॉक
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Locke denied that Aristotle’s syllogism is the instrument of reasoning: God did not leave it ‘to Aristotle to make them rational’ (An Essay concerning Human Understanding, 1689). J. Locke, An Essay concerning Human Understanding (1689), IV.xvii.4
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जॉन लॉक › 1632–1704
जॉन स्टुअर्ट मिल
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Mill dismissed Aristotle’s categories as ‘a mere catalogue’ of everyday distinctions and held that the syllogism, taken as proof, begs the question (A System of Logic, 1843). J. S. Mill, A System of Logic (1843), book I, ch. 3; book II, ch. 3
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जॉन स्टुअर्ट मिल › 1806–1873
सभी दिखाएँ (26)कम दिखाएँ
सादिया गाओन
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Saadia argued against the eternity of the world with proofs of creation and denied that Aristotle’s ten categories apply to God (Book of Beliefs and Opinions I–II, 933). Saadia Gaon, Kitāb al-amānāt wa-l-iʿtiqādāt (933) I–II, tr. S. Rosenblatt, 1948
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सादिया गाओन › 882–942
अल बेरुनी
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
In questions to Ibn Sina (c. 997) al-Biruni challenged Aristotle’s On the Heavens and Physics: why the heavens should be neither heavy nor light, why other worlds should be impossible, and why there could be no vacuum. al-Bīrūnī and Ibn Sīnā, al-Asʾila wa-l-ajwiba, ed. S. H. Nasr and M. Mohaghegh (1972); tr. R. Berjak and M. Iqbal, Islam & Science (2003–06)
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अल बेरुनी › 973–1048
अल ग़ज़ाली
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Al-Ghazali judged that Aristotle’s metaphysics, as transmitted by al-Farabi and Avicenna, contains unbelief, while accepting his logic as neutral (al-Munqidh min al-dalal, c. 1108). al-Ghazālī, al-Munqidh min al-ḍalāl, tr. R. J. McCarthy, Freedom and Fulfillment, 1980
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अल ग़ज़ाली › 1058–1111
येहूदा हलेवी
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Judah Halevi’s Kuzari sets the Aristotelian philosopher’s God, who knows nothing of individuals, against the God of revelation and history (Kuzari I.1–25, V.14). Judah Halevi, Kuzari (c. 1140) I.1–25, V.14; Y. Silman, Philosopher and Prophet, 1995
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येहूदा हलेवी › लगभग 1075–1141
सुहरवर्दी
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Suhrawardi rejected the Peripatetic theory of definition by genus and differentia and their categories, grounding knowledge in illumination and presence (Hikmat al-ishraq, 1186). Suhrawardī, Ḥikmat al-ishrāq (1186), tr. J. Walbridge & H. Ziai, 1999; SEP “Suhrawardi”
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सुहरवर्दी › 1154–1191
बोनावेंतुरे
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Bonaventure blamed Aristotle for rejecting Plato’s exemplary ideas, from which errors such as the world’s eternity and the denial of providence follow (Collationes in Hexaemeron VI, 1273). Bonaventure, Collationes in Hexaemeron VI.2–5 (1273); In II Sententiarum d. 1 p. 1 a. 1 q. 2
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बोनावेंतुरे › लगभग 1221–1274
इब्न तैमियाह
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Ibn Taymiyya attacked Aristotelian logic: definitions cannot capture essences, and the syllogism yields no knowledge not available otherwise (al-Radd ala al-mantiqiyyin). Ibn Taymiyya, al-Radd ʿalā al-manṭiqiyyīn; W. Hallaq, Ibn Taymiyya against the Greek Logicians, 1993
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इब्न तैमियाह › 1263–1328
हस्दाई क्रेस्कास
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Crescas criticised Aristotle’s physics as Maimonides had summarised it, defending the possibility of an actual infinite, of void and of many worlds (Or Adonai I.2, 1410). Ḥasdai Crescas, Or Adonai (1410) I.2; H. A. Wolfson, Crescas’ Critique of Aristotle, 1929
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हस्दाई क्रेस्कास › लगभग 1340–1411
जॉर्ज जेमिस्टोस प्लेथोन
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Plethon argued in Florence in 1439 that Aristotle falls short of Plato, faulting him on God as creator, the Forms and the immortal soul (De differentiis). G. Gemistos Plethon, De differentiis (1439); C. M. Woodhouse, George Gemistos Plethon: The Last of the Hellenes, 1986
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जॉर्ज जेमिस्टोस प्लेथोन › लगभग 1355–1452
लोरेंत्सो वाल्ला
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Valla reduced Aristotle’s ten categories to three – substance, quality, action – and measured scholastic terms against classical Latin usage (Repastinatio dialectice et philosophie, c. 1439). L. Valla, Repastinatio dialectice et philosophie (c. 1439) I; SEP “Lorenzo Valla”
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लोरेंत्सो वाल्ला › लगभग 1407–1457
बेर्नार्दीनो तेलेसियो
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Telesio replaced Aristotle’s form and matter with heat, cold and passive matter, studying nature ‘according to its own principles’ rather than by authority (De rerum natura, 1565). B. Telesio, De rerum natura iuxta propria principia (1565; 1586); SEP “Bernardino Telesio”
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बेर्नार्दीनो तेलेसियो › 1509–1588
जर्दानो ब्रूनो
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Bruno attacked Aristotle’s finite, geocentric cosmos, arguing for an infinite universe with innumerable worlds (De l’infinito, universo e mondi, 1584; Camoeracensis Acrotismus, 1588). G. Bruno, De l’infinito, universo e mondi (1584); Camoeracensis Acrotismus (1588); SEP “Giordano Bruno”
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जर्दानो ब्रूनो › 1548–1600
फ़्रांसिस्को सांचेस
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Sanches attacked the Aristotelian ideal of science as demonstration from definitions and causes, concluding that nothing can be known with certainty (Quod nihil scitur, 1581). F. Sanches, Quod nihil scitur (1581), ed. E. Limbrick & D. F. S. Thomson, 1988
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फ़्रांसिस्को सांचेस › 1551–1623
फ्रांसिस बेकन
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Bacon charged that Aristotle had corrupted natural philosophy with his dialectic, and set against the syllogism a method of gradual induction (Novum Organum, 1620, I.63). F. Bacon, Novum Organum (1620), I.11–14, I.54, I.63; SEP “Francis Bacon”
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फ्रांसिस बेकन › 1561–1626
गैलीलियो गैलिली
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Galileo argued against Aristotle’s physics – that heavier bodies fall faster and the heavens cannot change – in the Dialogue (1632) and Two New Sciences (1638). Galileo, Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi (1632), Day 1; Discorsi e dimostrazioni matematiche (1638), Day 1; SEP “Galileo Galilei”
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गैलीलियो गैलिली › 1564–1642
तोम्माज़ो काम्पानेल्ला
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Campanella defended Telesio’s philosophy of nature against the Aristotelians, grounding knowledge in the senses rather than in Aristotle’s authority (Philosophia sensibus demonstrata, 1591). T. Campanella, Philosophia sensibus demonstrata (1591); SEP “Tommaso Campanella”
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तोम्माज़ो काम्पानेल्ला › 1568–1639
पियर गासेंदी
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
In his Exercitationes paradoxicae adversus Aristoteleos (1624) Gassendi attacked Aristotelian logic and physics as taught in the schools, later setting Epicurean atomism against them. P. Gassendi, Exercitationes paradoxicae adversus Aristoteleos (1624); Syntagma philosophicum (1658); SEP “Pierre Gassendi”
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पियर गासेंदी › 1592–1655
मोंतेस्क्यू
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Montesquieu faulted Aristotle for classifying monarchies not by the form of the constitution but by accidents such as the prince’s virtues or vices (De l’esprit des lois, 1748). Montesquieu, De l’esprit des lois (1748), XI.9 (“De la manière de penser d’Aristote”)
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मोंतेस्क्यू › 1689–1755
शावियर सुबीरी
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Zubiri rejected Aristotle’s conception of essence as the correlate of definition and of reality as substance, conceiving essence as the physical structure of things (Sobre la esencia, 1962). X. Zubiri, Sobre la esencia (1962); Inteligencia sentiente (1980)
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शावियर सुबीरी › 1898–1983
कार्ल पॉपर
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Popper attacked Aristotle’s ‘methodological essentialism’, the search for definitions of essences, as a root of Hegelian historicism (The Open Society and Its Enemies, 1945). K. R. Popper, The Open Society and Its Enemies, vol. 2 (1945), ch. 11 (“The Aristotelian Roots of Hegelianism”)
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कार्ल पॉपर › 1902–1994
जिनकी आलोचना की 3
हेरक्लिटस
जिनकी आलोचना की
Aristotle objected to the claim, ascribed by some to Heraclitus, that the same thing is and is not: the principle of non-contradiction makes it unbelievable (Metaphysics IV). Aristotle, Metaphysics IV.3, 1005b23–26; IV.7, 1012a24–26; SEP “Heraclitus”
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हेरक्लिटस › लगभग 535–475 ईसा पूर्व
पारमेनीडेस
जिनकी आलोचना की
Aristotle objected that Parmenides’ argument for a single unchanging being fails because ‘being’ is said in many ways (Physics I.2–3). Aristotle, Physics I.2–3, 184b–187a; Metaphysics I.5, 986b
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पारमेनीडेस › लगभग 515–450 ईसा पूर्व
प्लेटो जिनसे पढ़ा
जिनसे पढ़ा ✓
Attested by Aristotle himself, who counts himself among the Platonists (‘we’, Metaphysics I.9, 990b9–17; ‘friends of ours’, Nicomachean Ethics I.6, 1096a11–17); his twenty years in the Academy are reported by later biographers (Diogenes Laertius 5.9). Aristotle, Metaphysics I.9, 990b9–17; Nicomachean Ethics I.6, 1096a11–17; Diogenes Laertius 5.9
जिनकी आलोचना की
Aristotle criticised Plato’s separate Forms for explaining neither change nor knowledge – ‘empty words and poetic metaphors’ – and rejected a single Form of the Good. Aristotle, Metaphysics I.9, 990b–991b; Nicomachean Ethics I.6, 1096a11–1097a14; SEP “Aristotle’s Metaphysics”
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प्लेटो › 428–348 ईसा पूर्व
कृतियाँ
- लगभग 350 ईसा पूर्वआत्मा के विषय में (De anima)
आत्मा जीवित शरीर के रूप (form) की तरह।
- लगभग 350 ईसा पूर्वऑर्गेनॉन
तर्कशास्त्रीय लेखन: श्रेणियाँ, न्याय-अनुमान, प्रमाण-सिद्धांत।
- लगभग 350 ईसा पूर्वफिज़िक्स (अरस्तू)
गति, काल, स्थान और चार कारण।
- लगभग 340 ईसा पूर्वमेटाफिजिक्स (अरस्तू)
सत्ता के रूप में सत्ता, द्रव्य और अचल प्रवर्तक – प्लेटो के रूपों की आलोचना के साथ।
- लगभग 340 ईसा पूर्वनिकोमेकियन नीतिशास्त्र
सुख (यूडेमोनिया) सद्गुणी कर्म के रूप में; मध्यम मार्ग के रूप में सद्गुण; व्यावहारिक प्रज्ञा।
- लगभग 335 ईसा पूर्वपोएटिक्स
त्रासदी, अनुकरण (मिमेसिस) और रेचन (कैथार्सिस) – प्लेटो की कवि-आलोचना का उत्तर।
- लगभग 335 ईसा पूर्वपोलिटिक्स
मनुष्य राजनीतिक प्राणी (ज़ोऑन पोलितिकोन) के रूप में; संविधानों की तुलना।
मत
Aristotle brought Plato’s Forms down to earth: form exists not in a separate realm but in individual things, as the structure that makes matter into this horse or this house. To explain anything, one asks for four causes – matter, form, moving cause and purpose. Nature is goal-directed; living things strive to realise their potential. In ethics, the goal of life is eudaimonia, flourishing through the exercise of the virtues, each a mean between two extremes. He founded formal logic, systematised biology, politics and poetics, and for medieval thinkers in Islam and Christianity he was simply “the Philosopher”. His Politics also defended “natural slavery” and held that a woman’s capacity to deliberate “lacks authority” – views later used to justify colonial enslavement (Sepúlveda) and long contested.
जीवन और संदर्भ
Aristotle was born in Stagira in northern Greece, the son of a physician at the Macedonian court. He studied for twenty years at Plato’s Academy, later tutored the young Alexander the Great and in 335 BCE founded his own school in Athens, the Lyceum. After Alexander’s death he left Athens and died a year later in Chalcis.
अन्य प्रमुख कृतियाँ
- Organon (c. 350 BCE)
- Physics (c. 350 BCE)
- Metaphysics (c. 340 BCE)
- Nicomachean Ethics (c. 340 BCE)
- Politics (c. 335 BCE)
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