रने देकार्त
जिसमें संदेह हो सके सब पर संदेह करें, और एक बात निश्चित रह जाती है – कि आप, जो सोच रहे हैं, अस्तित्व में हैं – और मन तथा शरीर दो भिन्न प्रकार की वस्तुएँ हैं।
पृष्ठभूमि
पद्धतिगत संदेह एक अटल आधार तक ले जाता है: मैं सोचता हूँ, इसलिए मैं हूँ। मन और शरीर दो द्रव्य हैं।
मुख्य विचार
- Cogito ergo sum
- पद्धतिगत संदेह
- मन–शरीर द्वैतवाद
प्रभाव
जिनसे प्रभावित 4
सेक्सटस एम्पिरिकस
जिनसे प्रभावित
Descartes’ doubt in the Meditations (1641) uses the sceptical arguments revived from Sextus; in the Second Replies he says he had seen many ancient sceptical writings. R. Descartes, Meditationes (1641), First Meditation and Second Replies; R. H. Popkin, The History of Scepticism from Savonarola to Bayle (2003); SEP “Ancient Skepticism”
साक्ष्य: InPhO में भी · InPhO
सेक्सटस एम्पिरिकस › लगभग 160–210
ऑगस्टीन
जिनसे प्रभावित
Shown Augustine’s ‘if I am mistaken, I exist’ (City of God), Descartes acknowledged the parallel but stressed his different use of it (letter to Colvius, 1640). R. Descartes, letter to A. Colvius (Nov. 1640); Augustine, De civitate Dei (si fallor, sum); SEP “Saint Augustine”
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ऑगस्टीन › 354–430
मान्तेन
जिनसे प्रभावित
Descartes’ Discourse on Method (1637) echoes Montaigne in its first-person form and in the lesson drawn from the diversity of customs, without naming him. R. Descartes, Discours de la méthode (1637), ed. É. Gilson, Discours de la méthode: texte et commentaire (1925); SEP “Michel de Montaigne”
साक्ष्य: InPhO में भी · InPhO
मान्तेन › 1533–1592
फ़्रांसिस्को सुआरेज़
जिनसे प्रभावित विवादित ✓
In the Fourth Replies (1641) Descartes cited Suárez’s Metaphysical Disputations on material falsity, the one place he names him; how far Suárez shaped him is disputed. R. Descartes, Fourth Replies (1641); F. Suárez, Disputationes metaphysicae (1597); R. Ariew, Descartes and the Last Scholastics (1999)
फ़्रांसिस्को सुआरेज़ › 1548–1617
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया 13
निकोला मालब्रांश
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया ✓
Reading Descartes’ Treatise on Man in 1664 turned Malebranche to philosophy; The Search after Truth (1674–75) keeps Cartesian dualism and extension as the essence of matter. N. Malebranche, De la recherche de la vérité (1674–75); SEP “Nicolas Malebranche”
निकोला मालब्रांश › 1638–1715
गेऑर्ग विल्हेल्म फ़्रीडरिश हेगल
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया ✓
Hegel made Descartes’ principle of thinking the start of modern philosophy: with him ‘we are at home’ (Lectures on the History of Philosophy, 1833–36). G. W. F. Hegel, Vorlesungen über die Geschichte der Philosophie III (ed. K. L. Michelet, 1836), section on Descartes
गेऑर्ग विल्हेल्म फ़्रीडरिश हेगल › 1770–1831
एडमुंड हुसल
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
In the Cartesian Meditations (1931) Husserl radicalised Descartes’s way to the ego cogito into transcendental phenomenology, rejecting the ego as a thinking substance. E. Husserl, Méditations cartésiennes (1931); Cartesianische Meditationen (1950); SEP “Edmund Husserl”
साक्ष्य: InPhO में भी · InPhO
एडमुंड हुसल › 1859–1938
ज्यां-पाल सार्त्र
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Sartre took the cogito as the starting point of philosophy and in ‘Cartesian Freedom’ (1946) argued that Descartes conceived an absolute freedom but transferred it to God. J.-P. Sartre, “La liberté cartésienne” (1946), in Situations I (1947); L’existentialisme est un humanisme (1946); SEP “Jean-Paul Sartre”
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ज्यां-पाल सार्त्र › 1905–1980
इमैनुएल लेविनास
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Levinas took Descartes’s idea of the infinite, which exceeds the mind that thinks it, as the structure of the relation to the Other (Totality and Infinity, 1961). E. Levinas, Totalité et infini (1961); R. Descartes, Meditationes de prima philosophia (1641), third meditation; SEP “Emmanuel Levinas”
साक्ष्य: InPhO में भी · InPhO
इमैनुएल लेविनास › 1906–1995
हैरी फ्रैंकफ़र्ट
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया ✓
Frankfurt read Descartes’s Meditations as a defence of reason, asking whether reason can vindicate itself against doubts from demons, dreams and madness (Demons, Dreamers, and Madmen, 1970). H. G. Frankfurt, Demons, Dreamers, and Madmen: The Defense of Reason in Descartes’s Meditations (1970); SEP “René Descartes”
साक्ष्य: Wikidata में भी · Wikidata
हैरी फ्रैंकफ़र्ट › 1929–2023
सभी दिखाएँ (13)कम दिखाएँ
पियर बेल
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Bayle taught Cartesian philosophy at Sedan and Rotterdam, and in his Dictionary (1697) turned the Cartesian arguments against sensible qualities against the reality of extension itself. P. Bayle, Dictionnaire historique et critique (1697), “Zénon d’Élée”, “Pyrrhon”; R. H. Popkin, The History of Scepticism from Savonarola to Bayle (2003); SEP “Pierre Bayle”
साक्ष्य: AI मसौदा
पियर बेल › 1647–1706
मैरी एस्टेल
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
In A Serious Proposal to the Ladies, Part II (1697), Astell adapted Descartes’ rules of method to show that women can reason as well as men. M. Astell, A Serious Proposal to the Ladies, Part II (1697); SEP “Mary Astell”
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मैरी एस्टेल › 1666–1731
जार्ज बर्कली
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Berkeley accepted the Cartesian starting point that we immediately perceive only our ideas, but used it to deny the material world Descartes had tried to prove (Principles, 1710). G. Berkeley, A Treatise concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge (1710); Three Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous (1713); SEP “George Berkeley”
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जार्ज बर्कली › 1685–1753
ताहा हुसैन
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Taha Hussein opened On Pre-Islamic Poetry (1926) by adopting Descartes’ method: the scholar must set aside what he knows and believes and doubt the transmitted sources. Ṭāhā Ḥusayn, Fī l-shiʿr al-jāhilī (1926), introduction; P. Cachia, Ṭāhā Ḥusayn (1956)
साक्ष्य: AI मसौदा
ताहा हुसैन › 1889–1973
सिमोन वेय
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Weil’s diploma thesis read Descartes as a philosopher of methodical work, for whom perception and knowledge arise from action on the world (Science et perception dans Descartes, 1930). S. Weil, Science et perception dans Descartes (diplôme d’études supérieures, 1930), in Œuvres complètes I (1988)
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सिमोन वेय › 1909–1943
याको हिंतिक्का
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Hintikka argued that Descartes’s cogito is not an inference but a performance: the thought ‘I do not exist’ defeats itself whenever it is thought or uttered (1962). J. Hintikka, “Cogito, ergo sum: Inference or Performance?”, Philosophical Review 71 (1962)
साक्ष्य: AI मसौदा
याको हिंतिक्का › 1929–2015
डेविड चाल्मर्स
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Chalmers revived a Cartesian conceivability argument – if zombies are conceivable, consciousness is not physical – for a dualism of properties rather than substances (The Conscious Mind, 1996). D. J. Chalmers, The Conscious Mind (1996); R. Descartes, Meditationes de prima philosophia (1641), sixth meditation; SEP “Zombies”
साक्ष्य: AI मसौदा
डेविड चाल्मर्स › जन्म 1966
आलोचना
परस्पर आलोचना 1
पियर गासेंदी ⇄ परस्पर
जिनकी आलोचना की
Descartes replied to Gassendi’s Fifth Objections (1641) addressing him as ‘flesh’ and arguing that Gassendi, wanting to grasp everything through images, confused pure understanding with imagination. Descartes, Fifth Replies (AT VII 347–390); letter to Clerselier, 12 Jan. 1646 (AT IX-1 202–217)
साक्ष्य: AI मसौदा
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
In the Fifth Objections (1641; expanded as Disquisitio metaphysica, 1644) Gassendi doubted innate ideas and asked how an unextended mind could move a body. Descartes, Meditationes (1641), Fifth Objections (AT VII 256–346); P. Gassendi, Disquisitio metaphysica (1644); SEP “Pierre Gassendi”
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पियर गासेंदी › 1592–1655
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित 28
अंतुआन आर्नो जिनसे प्रभावितजिन्हें प्रभावित किया
जिनसे प्रभावित
In the Fourth Replies (1641) Descartes accepted Arnauld’s advice and added to the Synopsis that the Fourth Meditation concerns error in judging truth, not sin. R. Descartes, Meditationes (1641), Synopsis and Fourth Replies; SEP “Antoine Arnauld”
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जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Arnauld became a leading Cartesian: the Port-Royal Logic (1662, with Pierre Nicole) builds on Descartes’ clear and distinct ideas and his method. A. Arnauld and P. Nicole, La Logique ou l’art de penser (1662); SEP “Antoine Arnauld”
साक्ष्य: InPhO में भी · InPhO
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
In the Fourth Objections (1641) Arnauld charged Descartes with circular reasoning about God and clear perception and questioned his denial of souls to animals. Descartes, Meditationes (1641), Fourth Objections (AT VII 197–218); SEP “Antoine Arnauld”
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अंतुआन आर्नो › 1612–1694
बोहेमिया की एलिज़ाबेथ जिनसे प्रभावितजिन्हें प्रभावित किया
जिनसे प्रभावित
Elisabeth’s questions about the union of mind and body and the control of the passions led Descartes to write The Passions of the Soul (1649). R. Descartes, Les Passions de l’âme (1649); Elisabeth–Descartes correspondence (1643–1649); SEP “Elisabeth of Bohemia”
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जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
From 1643 Elisabeth studied Descartes’ philosophy with him by letter; he dedicated the Principles of Philosophy (1644) to her, and in 1645 they discussed Seneca on happiness. Elisabeth of Bohemia and R. Descartes, The Correspondence, ed. and tr. L. Shapiro (2007); R. Descartes, Principia philosophiae (1644), dedication; SEP “Elisabeth of Bohemia”
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जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Elisabeth asked Descartes how an unextended thinking soul could move the body, since motion seems to require contact and extension (letter of 6/16 May 1643). Elisabeth to Descartes, 6/16 May 1643 (AT III 660–662); SEP “Elisabeth of Bohemia”
साक्ष्य: AI मसौदा
बोहेमिया की एलिज़ाबेथ › 1618–1680
जॉन लॉक जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया ✓
According to Damaris Masham, Descartes’ writings first gave Locke a relish for philosophy, for he found them intelligible even where he disagreed (letter to Le Clerc, 1705). D. Masham, letter to J. Le Clerc (Jan. 1705); M. Cranston, John Locke: A Biography (1957); SEP “John Locke”
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Locke denied innate ideas (Essay, 1689, Book I) and, against the Cartesians, that the soul always thinks, since thinking is its action, not its essence (II.i.10). J. Locke, An Essay concerning Human Understanding (1689), I.ii–iv, II.i.10–19; SEP “John Locke”
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जॉन लॉक › 1632–1704
बारुख़ स्पिनोज़ा जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया ✓
Spinoza’s first published book, Principles of Cartesian Philosophy (1663), set out Descartes’ Principles in geometrical order, with his Metaphysical Thoughts appended. B. Spinoza, Renati Des Cartes Principiorum philosophiae pars I et II, more geometrico demonstratae (1663), with Cogitata metaphysica; SEP “Baruch Spinoza”
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Spinoza called Descartes’ account of the mind steering the body through the pineal gland ‘more occult than any occult quality’ (Ethics, 1677, V, Preface). B. Spinoza, Ethica (1677), V, Praefatio; II P48–49 (against free will); SEP “Baruch Spinoza”
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बारुख़ स्पिनोज़ा › 1632–1677
आइज़क न्यूटन जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया ✓
Newton studied Descartes’ Géométrie and Principia philosophiae (1660s); his first law is close to Descartes’ laws of nature, and his title echoes Descartes’ (Principia, 1687). I. Newton, Philosophiae naturalis principia mathematica (1687); R. Descartes, Principia philosophiae (1644); R. S. Westfall, Never at Rest (1980); SEP “Isaac Newton”
साक्ष्य: Wikidata में भी · Wikidata
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Newton argued that Descartes’ vortices cannot account for Kepler’s laws (Principia II, 1687), and rejected his identification of space with body (De gravitatione). I. Newton, Principia (1687) II, scholium to prop. 53; De gravitatione et aequipondio fluidorum; SEP “Newton’s Philosophy”
साक्ष्य: AI मसौदा
आइज़क न्यूटन › 1643–1727
गॉटफ़्रीड विल्हेल्म लाइबनित्स जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया ✓
In Meditations on Knowledge, Truth and Ideas (1684) Leibniz refined Descartes’ clear and distinct ideas and completed his ontological proof by requiring God’s possibility to be shown. G. W. Leibniz, Meditationes de cognitione, veritate et ideis (Acta Eruditorum, 1684); SEP “Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz”
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Leibniz argued that Descartes’ law conserving quantity of motion is false: what is conserved is living force, mv² (Brevis demonstratio, 1686; Discourse on Metaphysics, §17). G. W. Leibniz, Brevis demonstratio erroris memorabilis Cartesii (Acta Eruditorum, 1686); Discours de métaphysique (1686), §17
साक्ष्य: AI मसौदा
गॉटफ़्रीड विल्हेल्म लाइबनित्स › 1646–1716
सभी दिखाएँ (28)कम दिखाएँ
थॉमस हॉब्स
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Hobbes argued that a thinking thing might be corporeal and that we have no idea of God or of the soul in Descartes’ sense (Third Objections, 1641). Descartes, Meditationes (1641), Third Objections and Replies (AT VII 171–196)
साक्ष्य: AI मसौदा
थॉमस हॉब्स › 1588–1679
मार्गरेट कैवेंडिश
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
In Philosophical Letters (1664) Cavendish rejected Descartes’ separation of an immaterial mind from inert matter, holding that all matter is self-moving, perceptive and rational. M. Cavendish, Philosophical Letters (1664), Part I; SEP “Margaret Lucas Cavendish”
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मार्गरेट कैवेंडिश › 1623–1673
ब्लेज़ पास्काल
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Pascal could not forgive Descartes for wanting to do without God, needing him only for a flick to set the world in motion (Pensées, fr. 1001 Lafuma). B. Pascal, Pensées, ed. Lafuma, fr. 1001 (Brunschvicg 77); fr. 887 (B 78: “Descartes inutile et incertain”)
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ब्लेज़ पास्काल › 1623–1662
ऐन कॉनवे
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Conway held against Descartes that body and spirit differ only in degree, so matter is not dead extension (Principles of the Most Ancient and Modern Philosophy, 1690). A. Conway, Principia philosophiae antiquissimae et recentissimae (1690), chs. 7–9; SEP “Anne Conway”
साक्ष्य: AI मसौदा
ऐन कॉनवे › 1631–1679
जामबातिस्ता विको
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Vico objected that Descartes’ cogito gives consciousness, not knowledge, of being, for we know truly only what we make (De antiquissima Italorum sapientia, 1710). G. Vico, De antiquissima Italorum sapientia (1710), ch. I; De nostri temporis studiorum ratione (1709); SEP “Giambattista Vico”
साक्ष्य: AI मसौदा
जामबातिस्ता विको › 1668–1744
एंटन विल्हेल्म आमो
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Amo turned against Cartesian interaction: the mind, active and immaterial, cannot sense or suffer, so sensation belongs to the living, organic body (De humanae mentis apatheia, 1734). A. W. Amo, Dissertatio inauguralis philosophica de humanae mentis apatheia (Wittenberg, 1734); S. Menn & J. E. H. Smith (eds.), Anton Wilhelm Amo’s Philosophical Dissertations on Mind and Body (2020)
साक्ष्य: AI मसौदा
एंटन विल्हेल्म आमो › लगभग 1703–1759
डेविड ह्यूम
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Hume objected that Descartes’ antecedent universal doubt would be incurable, since no principle could restore trust in our faculties once all were suspended (Enquiry, 1748, XII). D. Hume, An Enquiry concerning Human Understanding (1748), XII.i; SEP “David Hume”
साक्ष्य: AI मसौदा
डेविड ह्यूम › 1711–1776
इमानुएल कांट
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Kant rejected Descartes’ inference from ‘I think’ to a simple thinking substance (Paralogisms) and argued that inner experience presupposes outer objects (Refutation of Idealism, B 274–279). I. Kant, Kritik der reinen Vernunft, A 341–405 / B 399–432 (Paralogisms); B 274–279 (Refutation of Idealism)
साक्ष्य: AI मसौदा
इमानुएल कांट › 1724–1804
चार्ल्स सैंडर्स पियर्स
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Peirce rejected Cartesian doubt – ‘let us not pretend to doubt in philosophy what we do not doubt in our hearts’ (‘Some Consequences of Four Incapacities’, 1868). C. S. Peirce, “Some Consequences of Four Incapacities”, Journal of Speculative Philosophy 2 (1868); SEP “Charles Sanders Peirce”
साक्ष्य: AI मसौदा
चार्ल्स सैंडर्स पियर्स › 1839–1914
गैस्टन बैचलर्ड
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Bachelard called for a ‘non-Cartesian epistemology’: modern physics replaces Descartes’ simple, clear and distinct ideas with complex constructions (Le nouvel esprit scientifique, 1934, ch. 6). G. Bachelard, Le nouvel esprit scientifique (1934), ch. 6 ‘L’épistémologie non-cartésienne’
साक्ष्य: AI मसौदा
गैस्टन बैचलर्ड › 1884–1962
मार्टिन हाइडेगर
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Heidegger objected that Descartes leaves the being of the ‘sum’ unexamined and reduces the world to measurable extension, missing being-in-the-world (Being and Time, 1927, §§ 6, 19–21). M. Heidegger, Sein und Zeit (1927), §§ 6, 19–21; SEP “Martin Heidegger”
साक्ष्य: AI मसौदा
मार्टिन हाइडेगर › 1889–1976
नॉरबर्ट एलियास
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Elias traced the image of the individual as a homo clausus, sealed off from others, to Descartes’ cogito, and opposed it with figurations (Civilizing Process, 1969 introduction). N. Elias, Über den Prozeß der Zivilisation, 2nd ed. (1969), Introduction; Die Gesellschaft der Individuen (1987), Part II
साक्ष्य: AI मसौदा
नॉरबर्ट एलियास › 1897–1990
गिल्बर्ट राइल
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Ryle called the Cartesian ‘official doctrine’ of mind and body the dogma of the ‘Ghost in the Machine’, a category mistake (The Concept of Mind, 1949). G. Ryle, The Concept of Mind (1949), ch. 1
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गिल्बर्ट राइल › 1900–1976
मोरिस मर्लो-पोंती
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Merleau-Ponty rejected Descartes’ split between thinking mind and extended body, analysing perception through the lived body (Phenomenology of Perception, 1945); Eye and Mind (1961) contests his Optics. M. Merleau-Ponty, Phénoménologie de la perception (1945); L’Œil et l’esprit (1961), part III, on Descartes’ Dioptrique; SEP “Maurice Merleau-Ponty”
साक्ष्य: AI मसौदा
मोरिस मर्लो-पोंती › 1908–1961
हिलरी पट्नम
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Putnam argued that the brain-in-a-vat hypothesis, a modern version of Descartes’ demon, refutes itself: envatted brains could not even refer to vats (Reason, Truth and History, 1981). H. Putnam, Reason, Truth and History (1981), ch. 1 “Brains in a Vat”; R. Descartes, Meditationes (1641), I
साक्ष्य: AI मसौदा
हिलरी पट्नम › 1926–2016
अनीबाल किहानो
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Quijano traced the Eurocentric paradigm of knowledge to the Cartesian separation of a knowing subject, as reason, from its object and from the body – a dualism that in his account allowed the colonised to be classed as nature and body; critics dispute that Eurocentrism derives from Descartes. A. Quijano, “Colonialidad y modernidad/racionalidad”, Perú Indígena 13:29 (1992); “Colonialidad del poder, eurocentrismo y América Latina”, in E. Lander (ed.), La colonialidad del saber (2000)
साक्ष्य: AI मसौदा
अनीबाल किहानो › 1928–2018
रिचर्ड रोर्टी
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Rorty argued that Descartes invented the mind as an inner mirror of nature, founding a philosophy centred on epistemology (Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature, 1979, ch. 1). R. Rorty, Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (1979), ch. 1; SEP “Richard Rorty”
साक्ष्य: AI मसौदा
रिचर्ड रोर्टी › 1931–2007
टॉम रीगन
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Regan rejected Descartes’ denial of consciousness to animals as unfounded: many mammals are ‘subjects-of-a-life’ with beliefs, desires and inherent value (The Case for Animal Rights, 1983, ch. 1). T. Regan, The Case for Animal Rights (1983), ch. 1; R. Descartes, Discours de la méthode (1637), part V
साक्ष्य: AI मसौदा
टॉम रीगन › 1938–2017
डैनियल डेनेट
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Dennett attacked the ‘Cartesian Theater’, a central place in the brain where it all comes together for consciousness, surviving as ‘Cartesian materialism’ (Consciousness Explained, 1991). D. C. Dennett, Consciousness Explained (1991), ch. 5; D. C. Dennett & M. Kinsbourne, “Time and the Observer”, Behavioral and Brain Sciences 15 (1992)
साक्ष्य: AI मसौदा
डैनियल डेनेट › 1942–2024
एंडी क्लार्क
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Clark rejected the Cartesian picture of the mind as an inner, disembodied reasoner: cognition is embodied and can extend into tools and environment (Being There, 1997). A. Clark, Being There (1997); A. Clark & D. J. Chalmers, “The Extended Mind”, Analysis 58 (1998); Supersizing the Mind (2008)
साक्ष्य: AI मसौदा
एंडी क्लार्क › जन्म 1957
थॉमस मेट्ज़िंगर
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Metzinger argued that the Cartesian intuition of an irreducible self stems from the mind’s representational structure: there are no selves, only transparent self-models (Being No One, 2003). T. Metzinger, Being No One: The Self-Model Theory of Subjectivity (2003); The Ego Tunnel (2009)
साक्ष्य: AI मसौदा
थॉमस मेट्ज़िंगर › जन्म 1958
ब्रायन बर्कहार्ट
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Burkhart read Descartes’ thinking I as a subject without land or culture, an example of the Western ‘delocality’ that served colonisation (Indigenizing Philosophy through the Land, 2019). B. Burkhart, Indigenizing Philosophy through the Land (2019); cf. E. Dussel, 1492: El encubrimiento del otro (1992) on ego cogito and ego conquiro
साक्ष्य: AI मसौदा
ब्रायन बर्कहार्ट › समकालीन
जिनकी आलोचना की 1
अरस्तू
जिनकी आलोचना की
Descartes rejected the scholastic-Aristotelian substantial forms and real qualities, explaining nature by extension and motion and banishing final causes from physics (letter to Regius, January 1642; Meditations IV). Descartes to Regius, Jan. 1642 (AT III 491–510); Meditationes IV (AT VII 55); Principia philosophiae IV §§198–203; SEP “Descartes’ Physics”
साक्ष्य: AI मसौदा
अरस्तू › 384–322 ईसा पूर्व
कृतियाँ
- 1637विधि पर प्रवचन
चिंतन के चार नियम और पहला “मैं सोचता हूँ, इसलिए मैं हूँ”।
मूलगामी संदेह, कोगितो, ईश्वर के प्रमाण और मन–शरीर द्वैतवाद।
मत
Descartes wanted to rebuild knowledge on a foundation that could not be doubted. He doubted everything – the senses, the body, even mathematics, imagining an evil demon deceiving him – until one certainty remained: while I doubt, I think, and so I exist. From this “I think, therefore I am” he argued for God as guarantor of clear and distinct ideas, and for the reality of the external world. Mind, a thinking thing, and body, an extended thing, are two distinct substances – which raised the lasting puzzle of how they interact, a puzzle Princess Elisabeth of Bohemia pressed on him in 1643 and that he never fully solved. With analytic geometry and a mechanical physics he laid foundations for modern science; he is often called the father of modern philosophy and of rationalism.
जीवन और संदर्भ
Born in 1596 in La Haye in Touraine, Descartes was educated by the Jesuits at La Flèche and studied law. He served as a volunteer soldier, and in 1619 had the insight that led him to a new method. He spent most of his productive life in the Dutch Republic. Invited by Queen Christina, he went to Stockholm in 1649 and died there in 1650.
अन्य प्रमुख कृतियाँ
- Rules for the Direction of the Mind (c. 1628)
- Discourse on the Method (1637)
- Meditations on First Philosophy (1641)
- Principles of Philosophy (1644)
- The Passions of the Soul (1649)
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