Karol Marks

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Labriola’s In memoria del Manifesto dei comunisti (1895) read Marx’s historical materialism as a method for studying history through its mediations, not as a doctrine of economic laws. A. Labriola, In memoria del Manifesto dei comunisti (1895); Del materialismo storico (1896)

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Tönnies drew his type of Gesellschaft partly from Marx’s Capital, as a society of exchange and commodity production, and later wrote Marx: Leben und Lehre (1921). F. Tönnies, Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft (1887); Marx. Leben und Lehre (1921)

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Plekhanov translated the Communist Manifesto into Russian (1882, with a preface by Marx and Engels) and applied Marx’s analysis to Russian capitalism against the Narodniks (Our Differences, 1885). K. Marx and F. Engels, Manifest der Kommunistischen Partei, Russian tr. G. Plekhanov (1882); G. Plekhanov, Naši raznoglasija (1885); S. H. Baron, Plekhanov (1963)

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Simmel wanted to build ‘a storey beneath historical materialism’, tracing economic forms themselves to psychological and metaphysical preconditions (Philosophie des Geldes, 1900, preface). G. Simmel, Philosophie des Geldes (1900), preface; D. Frisby, Georg Simmel (1984)

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Sombart’s early lectures on socialism and Modern Capitalism engage Marx closely, yet explain the origin of capitalism through a changed mentality rather than class relations. Deutsche Biographie, “Sombart, Werner” (F. Lenger, NDB 24, 2010)

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Du Bois used Marxist categories in Black Reconstruction (1935), reading the flight of the enslaved from plantations as a ‘general strike’ against slavery. W. E. B. Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America (1935); “Marxism and the Negro Problem”, The Crisis 40 (1933); SEP “W. E. B. Du Bois”

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Following Marx’s class analysis, Kollontai held that working women’s emancipation required abolishing private property, not equal rights within bourgeois society (The Social Basis of the Woman Question, 1909). A. Kollontai, Social’nye osnovy ženskogo voprosa (1909); B. Evans Clements, Bolshevik Feminist: The Life of Aleksandra Kollontai (1979)

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In The Philosophy of Marx (1899) Gentile read Marx’s praxis in the Theses on Feuerbach as the unity of thinking and doing, later central to his actualism. G. Gentile, La filosofia di Marx (1899); H. S. Harris, The Social Philosophy of Giovanni Gentile (1960)

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Neurath treated Marx’s historical materialism as a model of empirical, anti-metaphysical sociology (Empirische Soziologie, 1931) and argued for a planned economy calculated in kind (1919). O. Neurath, Durch die Kriegswirtschaft zur Naturalwirtschaft (1919); Empirische Soziologie (1931); SEP “Otto Neurath”

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Lukács built his theory of reification on Marx’s account of commodity fetishism, extending it to bureaucracy, law and thought (‘Reification and the Consciousness of the Proletariat’, 1923). G. Lukács, “Die Verdinglichung und das Bewußtsein des Proletariats”, in Geschichte und Klassenbewußtsein (1923); SEP “Georg [György] Lukács”

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Gramsci read Marx’s 1859 Preface, by which people become conscious of social conflicts in ideological forms, as a basis for his theory of hegemony (prison notebooks, 1929–35). A. Gramsci, Quaderni del carcere (1929–35), ed. V. Gerratana (1975); K. Marx, Zur Kritik der politischen Ökonomie, Vorwort (1859)

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Benjamin read the Paris arcades through Marx’s commodity fetishism as phantasmagoria (‘Paris, the Capital of the Nineteenth Century’, 1935) and joined historical materialism with messianism (1940). W. Benjamin, “Paris, die Hauptstadt des XIX. Jahrhunderts” (exposé, 1935); “Über den Begriff der Geschichte” (1940); SEP “Walter Benjamin”

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Mannheim started from Marx’s thesis that thought is shaped by social being, widening the ‘total’ concept of ideology to all positions, including Marxism’s own (Ideologie und Utopie, 1929). K. Mannheim, Ideologie und Utopie (1929); K. Marx, Zur Kritik der politischen Ökonomie (1859), preface; SEP “Ideology”

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Mariátegui applied Marx’s method to Peru, treating the ‘problem of the Indian’ as a problem of land, not of race or education (Siete ensayos, 1928). J. C. Mariátegui, Siete ensayos de interpretación de la realidad peruana (1928), “El problema del indio”; Defensa del marxismo (1928–29)

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Horkheimer took Marx’s critique of political economy as the model of a ‘critical theory’ of society, as opposed to traditional theory (‘Traditional and Critical Theory’, 1937). M. Horkheimer, “Traditionelle und kritische Theorie”, Zeitschrift für Sozialforschung 6 (1937); SEP “Critical Theory”

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Vygotsky held that psychology needed its own ‘Capital’, a methodology built on Marx’s method rather than on quotations (Istoričeskij smysl psichologičeskogo krizisa, written 1927, publ. 1982). L. S. Vygotsky, Istoričeskij smysl psichologičeskogo krizisa (written 1927; publ. 1982), Eng. “The Historical Meaning of the Crisis in Psychology” (1997); R. van der Veer and J. Valsiner, Understanding Vygotsky (1991)

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Elias valued Marx’s study of long-term social development but rejected the primacy of the economy, setting monopolies of violence and taxation beside it (Was ist Soziologie?, 1970). N. Elias, Was ist Soziologie? (1970); Über den Prozess der Zivilisation (1939), vol. II; S. Mennell, Norbert Elias: Civilization and the Human Self-Image (1989)

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Marcuse reviewed the newly printed Paris Manuscripts in 1932, reading them as a philosophical foundation of historical materialism centred on labour and alienation. H. Marcuse, “Neue Quellen zur Grundlegung des Historischen Materialismus”, Die Gesellschaft 9 (1932); K. Marx, Ökonomisch-philosophische Manuskripte (written 1844, printed 1932)

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In Marx’s Concept of Man (1961), which printed the Paris Manuscripts in English, Fromm presented Marx as a humanist whose aim was to overcome alienation. E. Fromm, Marx’s Concept of Man (1961), with the Paris Manuscripts tr. T. B. Bottomore

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Adorno took up Marx’s analysis of commodity exchange and read the exchange principle, which makes unlike things equal, as the social model of identity thinking (Negative Dialectics, 1966). T. W. Adorno, Negative Dialektik (1966); SEP “Theodor W. Adorno”

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Senghor read the young Marx as a humanist and adapted his socialism to African communal traditions, rejecting class struggle and atheism (Nation et voie africaine du socialisme, 1961). L. S. Senghor, “Marxisme et humanisme”, La Revue socialiste 19 (1948); Nation et voie africaine du socialisme (1961)

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Beauvoir ended Le Deuxième Sexe (1949) with Marx’s sentence that the relation of man to woman is the immediate, natural, necessary relation of human to human (1844 Manuscripts). S. de Beauvoir, Le Deuxième Sexe II (1949), conclusion; K. Marx, Ökonomisch-philosophische Manuskripte (1844)

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Nkrumah adopted Marx’s class analysis late, arguing that African societies are divided by class and that an African bourgeoisie is allied with neocolonialism (Class Struggle in Africa, 1970). K. Nkrumah, Class Struggle in Africa (1970); Neo-Colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism (1965)

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Césaire tied colonialism to capitalist Europe in Marxist terms (Discours sur le colonialisme, 1950) but refused to subsume colonial questions under class (Lettre à Maurice Thorez, 1956). A. Césaire, Discours sur le colonialisme (1950); Lettre à Maurice Thorez (1956)

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Barthes based Mythologies (1957) on Marx’s critique of ideology: myth is depoliticised speech that turns the bourgeois order’s history into nature. R. Barthes, Mythologies (1957), “Le mythe, aujourd’hui”

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Claudia Jones analysed the “superexploitation” of Black women as workers, as Black people and as women in Marxist terms, as a member and theorist of the Communist Party. C. Jones, “An End to the Neglect of the Problems of the Negro Woman!”, Political Affairs (June 1949); C. Boyce Davies, Left of Karl Marx (2008)

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Mills used Marx’s class analysis but replaced ‘ruling class’ with ‘power elite’ to stress institutional power (The Power Elite, 1956), and presented Marx critically in The Marxists (1962). C. W. Mills, The Power Elite (1956); The Marxists (1962)

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Althusser read Marx against humanist interpretations, claiming an ‘epistemological break’ around 1845 between the young Marx of alienation and the science of Capital (For Marx, 1965). L. Althusser, Pour Marx (1965); Lire le Capital (1965); SEP “Louis Althusser”

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Freire took from Marx praxis as the unity of reflection and action and cited his thesis that the educator must be educated (Pedagogia do oprimido, written 1968). P. Freire, Pedagogia do oprimido (written 1968); K. Marx, Thesen über Feuerbach (1845)

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Williams reworked Marx’s base and superstructure from the 1859 Preface, treating culture as material production rather than reflection (‘Base and Superstructure in Marxist Cultural Theory’, 1973). R. Williams, “Base and Superstructure in Marxist Cultural Theory”, New Left Review I/82 (1973); Marxism and Literature (1977)

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Cabral reworked Marx’s theory of history: its motor is the productive forces, so peoples without classes are not outside history (‘The Weapon of Theory’, Havana, 1966). A. Cabral, “The Weapon of Theory”, address to the Tricontinental Conference, Havana (1966), in Revolution in Guinea (1969)

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A Marxist sociologist in Warsaw, Bauman kept Marx’s critique of the present but read socialism as an ‘active utopia’, not a historical necessity (Socialism: The Active Utopia, 1976). Z. Bauman, Socialism: The Active Utopia (1976); K. Tester, The Social Thought of Zygmunt Bauman (2004); SEP “Karl Marx”

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Fanon held that ‘Marxist analysis should always be slightly stretched’ in the colonies, where the peasantry, not the proletariat, is revolutionary (Les Damnés de la terre, 1961). F. Fanon, Les Damnés de la terre (1961); SEP “Frantz Fanon”

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Smith took from The German Ideology the method of beginning from actual people and their activities, treating knowledge as part of the ‘relations of ruling’ (1987, 1990). D. E. Smith, The Everyday World as Problematic (1987); The Conceptual Practices of Power (1990); K. Marx and F. Engels, Die deutsche Ideologie (written 1845–46, printed 1932)

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Kosík took Marx’s concept of praxis as the human being’s self-creation and read the fetishised everyday world as ‘pseudo-concrete’ (Dialectics of the Concrete, 1963). K. Kosík, Dialektika konkrétního (1963); L. Kołakowski, Main Currents of Marxism III (1978)

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Petrović read Marx, above all the early manuscripts, as a philosopher of praxis, free creative activity, against Stalinist dialectical materialism (Marx in the Mid-Twentieth Century, 1967). G. Petrović, Marx in the Mid-Twentieth Century (1967); L. Kołakowski, Main Currents of Marxism III (1978)

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Gutiérrez used Marxist social analysis and dependency theory to read poverty as structural injustice, a use the Vatican criticised in 1984 (Teología de la liberación, 1971). G. Gutiérrez, Teología de la liberación: Perspectivas (1971); Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, Libertatis nuntius (1984)

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Quijano started from Marxist dependency theory but held that Eurocentric historical materialism misses race as a basis of the colonial division of labour (‘Colonialidad del poder’, 2000). A. Quijano, “Colonialidad del poder, eurocentrismo y América Latina”, in E. Lander (ed.), La colonialidad del saber (2000)

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With Luckmann, Berger took over Marx’s dialectic of humans producing a world that confronts them as objective, and his concept of reification (The Social Construction of Reality, 1966). P. L. Berger and T. Luckmann, The Social Construction of Reality (1966); P. L. Berger and S. Pullberg, “Reification and the Sociological Critique of Consciousness”, History and Theory 4 (1965)

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In The Theory of Need in Marx (1974/76) Heller drew from Marx the concept of ‘radical needs’ that capitalism produces but cannot satisfy. A. Heller, La teoria dei bisogni in Marx (1974), Eng. tr. The Theory of Need in Marx (1976)

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MacIntyre began as a Marxist critic of liberal society (Marxism: An Interpretation, 1953) and kept Marx’s critique of capitalism after his turn to Aristotle (After Virtue, 1981). A. MacIntyre, Marxism: An Interpretation (1953); Marxism and Christianity (1968); After Virtue (1981); K. Knight (ed.), The MacIntyre Reader (1998)

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Bourdieu widened Marx’s concept of capital beyond economics to cultural, social and symbolic capital, whose unequal distribution and conversion structure social space (1983; ‘The Forms of Capital’, 1986). P. Bourdieu, “Ökonomisches Kapital, kulturelles Kapital, soziales Kapital” (1983); “The Forms of Capital” (1986); La Distinction (1979)

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Li Zehou took from Marx the primacy of material practice, above all making and using tools, as the ground of his anthropo-historical ontology (Pipan zhexue de pipan, 1979). Li Zehou, Pipan zhexue de pipan (1979); J. S. Rošker, Following His Own Path: Li Zehou and Contemporary Chinese Philosophy (2019)

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In a close reading of Marx’s 1857 Introduction (1974) Hall derived a non-reductive method of articulation; later he sought a ‘Marxism without guarantees’ (‘The Problem of Ideology’, 1983). S. Hall, “Marx’s Notes on Method: A ‘Reading’ of the ‘1857 Introduction’”, Working Papers in Cultural Studies 6 (1974); “The Problem of Ideology: Marxism without Guarantees” (1983)

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In seminars at the École normale supérieure published as Marx beyond Marx (1979), Negri read the Grundrisse as a theory of the antagonistic subjectivity of living labour. A. Negri, Marx oltre Marx. Quaderno di lavoro sui Grundrisse (1979)

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Dussel read Marx’s manuscripts closely, finding in living labour an exteriority to capital like the Other of liberation ethics (La producción teórica de Marx, 1985). E. Dussel, La producción teórica de Marx (1985); Hacia un Marx desconocido (1988); El último Marx (1990)

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Harding modelled the feminist standpoint on Marx’s analysis of how a social position, that of labour, enables knowledge hidden from the ruling class (Whose Science? Whose Knowledge?, 1991). S. Harding, Whose Science? Whose Knowledge? Thinking from Women’s Lives (1991); The Science Question in Feminism (1986); SEP “Feminist Epistemology and Philosophy of Science”

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Giddens kept Marx’s dictum that people make history, though not under conditions of their own choosing, but rejected his evolutionism (A Contemporary Critique of Historical Materialism, 1981). A. Giddens, A Contemporary Critique of Historical Materialism (1981); The Constitution of Society (1984); K. Marx, Der achtzehnte Brumaire des Louis Bonaparte (1852)

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Hochschild opened The Managed Heart (1983) with Marx’s child worker in Capital: as factory work estranged workers from their labour, emotional labour can estrange them from their feelings. A. R. Hochschild, The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling (1983); K. Marx, Das Kapital I (1867)

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Karatani read Marx’s value-form analysis as a transcritique of capital and later recast history as modes of exchange rather than of production (The Structure of World History, 2010). Karatani Kōjin, Transcritique: On Kant and Marx (2001; Eng. 2003); Sekaishi no kōzō (2010), tr. M. K. Bourdaghs, The Structure of World History (2014)

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In Caliban and the Witch (2004) Federici took up Marx’s primitive accumulation and argued that it also required unpaid reproductive labour and control over women’s bodies. S. Federici, Caliban and the Witch: Women, the Body and Primitive Accumulation (2004); K. Marx, Das Kapital I (1867)

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Rodney wrote How Europe Underdeveloped Africa (1972) from the standpoint of historical materialism, treating underdevelopment as part of the history of capitalist expansion. W. Rodney, How Europe Underdeveloped Africa (1972); “Tanzanian Ujamaa and Scientific Socialism”, African Review 1/4 (1972)

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Spivak read Marx’s distinction between political representation (vertreten) and portrayal (darstellen) in The Eighteenth Brumaire against Foucault and Deleuze (‘Can the Subaltern Speak?’, 1988). G. C. Spivak, “Can the Subaltern Speak?” (1988); “Scattered Speculations on the Question of Value”, Diacritics 15 (1985); K. Marx, Der achtzehnte Brumaire des Louis Bonaparte (1852)

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Beck set the risk society against Marx’s class society: where industrial modernity distributed wealth, reflexive modernity also distributes risks, and individualisation yields a ‘capitalism without classes’ (Risikogesellschaft, 1986). U. Beck, Risikogesellschaft. Auf dem Weg in eine andere Moderne (1986); “Jenseits von Stand und Klasse?” (1983)

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Connell began with Marxist class analysis of Australia’s ruling class and its cultural hegemony (Ruling Class, Ruling Culture, 1977), before extending structural analysis of power to gender. R. W. Connell, Ruling Class, Ruling Culture (1977); R. W. Connell and T. H. Irving, Class Structure in Australian History (1980); Gender and Power (1987)

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In Women, Race & Class (1981) Davis analysed slavery and domestic labour in Marxist terms, arguing that socialising housework could free working-class women. A. Y. Davis, Women, Race & Class (1981), “The Approaching Obsolescence of Housework: A Working-Class Perspective”

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Haraway wrote her cyborg myth as an ironic politics ‘faithful to feminism, socialism, and materialism’, recasting the analysis of labour for technoscience (‘A Cyborg Manifesto’, 1985). D. Haraway, “A Manifesto for Cyborgs: Science, Technology, and Socialist Feminism in the 1980s”, Socialist Review 80 (1985); Simians, Cyborgs, and Women (1991)

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Esping-Andersen took from Marx the commodification of labour power, which ties workers’ livelihood to the market, as what social rights can counteract (Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism, 1990). G. Esping-Andersen, The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism (1990); SEP “Karl Marx”

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Fraser extended Marx’s move into the ‘hidden abode’ of production to capitalism’s background conditions: social reproduction, nature and political power (‘Behind Marx’s Hidden Abode’, 2014). N. Fraser, “Behind Marx’s Hidden Abode: For an Expanded Conception of Capitalism”, New Left Review 86 (2014); Cannibal Capitalism (2022)

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Sassen asked whether advanced capitalism produces a systemic equivalent of Marx’s primitive accumulation, a ‘savage sorting’ that expels people, land and economies (2010; Expulsions, 2014). S. Sassen, “A Savage Sorting of Winners and Losers: Contemporary Versions of Primitive Accumulation”, Globalizations 7 (2010); Expulsions: Brutality and Complexity in the Global Economy (2014)

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Chakrabarty took from Marx’s Grundrisse the history posited by capital (‘History 1’) and set against it pasts not belonging to capital’s life-process (‘History 2’) (Provincializing Europe, 2000). D. Chakrabarty, Provincializing Europe (2000); K. Marx, Grundrisse (1857–58; publ. 1939–41)

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Žižek read Marx’s formula ‘they do not know it, but they are doing it’ as locating ideology in practice, not belief (The Sublime Object of Ideology, 1989). S. Žižek, The Sublime Object of Ideology (1989); K. Marx, Das Kapital I (1867), on the fetish character of the commodity

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Mills wrote his doctorate on ideology in Marx and Engels (1985) and adapted historical materialism to race as a system of domination (From Class to Race, 2003). C. W. Mills, From Class to Race: Essays in White Marxism and Black Radicalism (2003); The Racial Contract (1997)

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Haslanger revived ideology critique in the tradition going back to Marx, treating ideology as networks of social meanings that make unjust practices seem natural (‘Culture and Critique’, 2017). S. Haslanger, “Culture and Critique”, Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, suppl. vol. 91 (2017); Resisting Reality (2012)

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Rosa tied social acceleration to capitalism’s compulsion to grow and recast alienation as a mute, indifferent relation to the world (Alienation and Acceleration, 2010). H. Rosa, Beschleunigung (2005); Alienation and Acceleration (2010); Resonanz (2016); SEP “Alienation”

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Jaeggi reconstructed the concept of alienation from Marx and others without an essentialist human nature, as a ‘relation of relationlessness’ (Entfremdung, 2005). R. Jaeggi, Entfremdung. Zur Aktualität eines sozialphilosophischen Problems (2005); SEP “Alienation”

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Coulthard reworked Marx’s primitive accumulation in a place-based way: in settler colonies the decisive relation is the ongoing dispossession of land, not the making of wage labour (2014). G. S. Coulthard, Red Skin, White Masks (2014); K. Marx, Das Kapital I (1867), on so-called primitive accumulation

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