رينيه ديكارت
شُكَّ في كل ما تستطيع الشك فيه، وسيبقى أمر واحد يقينيًا – أنك، وأنت تفكر، موجود – والعقل والجسد نوعان مختلفان من الشيء.
التموضع
يقود الشك المنهجي إلى أساس لا يتزعزع: أنا أفكر إذن أنا موجود. العقل والجسد جوهران.
الأفكار الرئيسة
- أنا أفكر إذن أنا موجود (Cogito ergo sum)
- الشك المنهجي
- ثنائية العقل والجسد
التأثير
تأثّر بـ 4
سيكستوس إمبيريكوس
تأثّر بـ
Descartes’ doubt in the Meditations (1641) uses the sceptical arguments revived from Sextus; in the Second Replies he says he had seen many ancient sceptical writings. R. Descartes, Meditationes (1641), First Meditation and Second Replies; R. H. Popkin, The History of Scepticism from Savonarola to Bayle (2003); SEP “Ancient Skepticism”
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سيكستوس إمبيريكوس › نحو 160–210
أوغسطينوس
تأثّر بـ
Shown Augustine’s ‘if I am mistaken, I exist’ (City of God), Descartes acknowledged the parallel but stressed his different use of it (letter to Colvius, 1640). R. Descartes, letter to A. Colvius (Nov. 1640); Augustine, De civitate Dei (si fallor, sum); SEP “Saint Augustine”
التوثيق: مسودة بالذكاء الاصطناعي
أوغسطينوس › 354–430
ميشيل دي مونتين
تأثّر بـ
Descartes’ Discourse on Method (1637) echoes Montaigne in its first-person form and in the lesson drawn from the diversity of customs, without naming him. R. Descartes, Discours de la méthode (1637), ed. É. Gilson, Discours de la méthode: texte et commentaire (1925); SEP “Michel de Montaigne”
التوثيق: مسجّل أيضًا في InPhO · InPhO
ميشيل دي مونتين › 1533–1592
فرنسيسكو سواريز
تأثّر بـ مختلف عليها ✓
In the Fourth Replies (1641) Descartes cited Suárez’s Metaphysical Disputations on material falsity, the one place he names him; how far Suárez shaped him is disputed. R. Descartes, Fourth Replies (1641); F. Suárez, Disputationes metaphysicae (1597); R. Ariew, Descartes and the Last Scholastics (1999)
فرنسيسكو سواريز › 1548–1617
أثّر في 13
نيكولا مالبرانش
أثّر في ✓
Reading Descartes’ Treatise on Man in 1664 turned Malebranche to philosophy; The Search after Truth (1674–75) keeps Cartesian dualism and extension as the essence of matter. N. Malebranche, De la recherche de la vérité (1674–75); SEP “Nicolas Malebranche”
نيكولا مالبرانش › 1638–1715
جورج فيلهلم فريدريش هيغل
أثّر في ✓
Hegel made Descartes’ principle of thinking the start of modern philosophy: with him ‘we are at home’ (Lectures on the History of Philosophy, 1833–36). G. W. F. Hegel, Vorlesungen über die Geschichte der Philosophie III (ed. K. L. Michelet, 1836), section on Descartes
جورج فيلهلم فريدريش هيغل › 1770–1831
إدموند هوسرل
أثّر في
In the Cartesian Meditations (1931) Husserl radicalised Descartes’s way to the ego cogito into transcendental phenomenology, rejecting the ego as a thinking substance. E. Husserl, Méditations cartésiennes (1931); Cartesianische Meditationen (1950); SEP “Edmund Husserl”
التوثيق: مسجّل أيضًا في InPhO · InPhO
إدموند هوسرل › 1859–1938
جان بول سارتر
أثّر في
Sartre took the cogito as the starting point of philosophy and in ‘Cartesian Freedom’ (1946) argued that Descartes conceived an absolute freedom but transferred it to God. J.-P. Sartre, “La liberté cartésienne” (1946), in Situations I (1947); L’existentialisme est un humanisme (1946); SEP “Jean-Paul Sartre”
التوثيق: مسودة بالذكاء الاصطناعي
جان بول سارتر › 1905–1980
إيمانويل ليفيناس
أثّر في
Levinas took Descartes’s idea of the infinite, which exceeds the mind that thinks it, as the structure of the relation to the Other (Totality and Infinity, 1961). E. Levinas, Totalité et infini (1961); R. Descartes, Meditationes de prima philosophia (1641), third meditation; SEP “Emmanuel Levinas”
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إيمانويل ليفيناس › 1906–1995
هاري فرانكفورت
أثّر في ✓
Frankfurt read Descartes’s Meditations as a defence of reason, asking whether reason can vindicate itself against doubts from demons, dreams and madness (Demons, Dreamers, and Madmen, 1970). H. G. Frankfurt, Demons, Dreamers, and Madmen: The Defense of Reason in Descartes’s Meditations (1970); SEP “René Descartes”
التوثيق: مسجّل أيضًا في Wikidata · Wikidata
هاري فرانكفورت › 1929–2023
عرض الكل (13)عرض أقل
بيير بايل
أثّر في
Bayle taught Cartesian philosophy at Sedan and Rotterdam, and in his Dictionary (1697) turned the Cartesian arguments against sensible qualities against the reality of extension itself. P. Bayle, Dictionnaire historique et critique (1697), “Zénon d’Élée”, “Pyrrhon”; R. H. Popkin, The History of Scepticism from Savonarola to Bayle (2003); SEP “Pierre Bayle”
التوثيق: مسودة بالذكاء الاصطناعي
بيير بايل › 1647–1706
ماري آستل
أثّر في
In A Serious Proposal to the Ladies, Part II (1697), Astell adapted Descartes’ rules of method to show that women can reason as well as men. M. Astell, A Serious Proposal to the Ladies, Part II (1697); SEP “Mary Astell”
التوثيق: مسودة بالذكاء الاصطناعي
ماري آستل › 1666–1731
جورج بيركلي
أثّر في
Berkeley accepted the Cartesian starting point that we immediately perceive only our ideas, but used it to deny the material world Descartes had tried to prove (Principles, 1710). G. Berkeley, A Treatise concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge (1710); Three Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous (1713); SEP “George Berkeley”
التوثيق: مسودة بالذكاء الاصطناعي
جورج بيركلي › 1685–1753
طه حسين
أثّر في
Taha Hussein opened On Pre-Islamic Poetry (1926) by adopting Descartes’ method: the scholar must set aside what he knows and believes and doubt the transmitted sources. Ṭāhā Ḥusayn, Fī l-shiʿr al-jāhilī (1926), introduction; P. Cachia, Ṭāhā Ḥusayn (1956)
التوثيق: مسودة بالذكاء الاصطناعي
طه حسين › 1889–1973
سيمون فايل
أثّر في
Weil’s diploma thesis read Descartes as a philosopher of methodical work, for whom perception and knowledge arise from action on the world (Science et perception dans Descartes, 1930). S. Weil, Science et perception dans Descartes (diplôme d’études supérieures, 1930), in Œuvres complètes I (1988)
التوثيق: مسودة بالذكاء الاصطناعي
سيمون فايل › 1909–1943
ياكو هينتيكا
أثّر في
Hintikka argued that Descartes’s cogito is not an inference but a performance: the thought ‘I do not exist’ defeats itself whenever it is thought or uttered (1962). J. Hintikka, “Cogito, ergo sum: Inference or Performance?”, Philosophical Review 71 (1962)
التوثيق: مسودة بالذكاء الاصطناعي
ياكو هينتيكا › 1929–2015
ديفيد تشالمرز
أثّر في
Chalmers revived a Cartesian conceivability argument – if zombies are conceivable, consciousness is not physical – for a dualism of properties rather than substances (The Conscious Mind, 1996). D. J. Chalmers, The Conscious Mind (1996); R. Descartes, Meditationes de prima philosophia (1641), sixth meditation; SEP “Zombies”
التوثيق: مسودة بالذكاء الاصطناعي
ديفيد تشالمرز › وُلد 1966
النقد
نقد متبادل 1
بيير جاسندي ⇄ متبادل
انتقد
Descartes replied to Gassendi’s Fifth Objections (1641) addressing him as ‘flesh’ and arguing that Gassendi, wanting to grasp everything through images, confused pure understanding with imagination. Descartes, Fifth Replies (AT VII 347–390); letter to Clerselier, 12 Jan. 1646 (AT IX-1 202–217)
التوثيق: مسودة بالذكاء الاصطناعي
انتقده
In the Fifth Objections (1641; expanded as Disquisitio metaphysica, 1644) Gassendi doubted innate ideas and asked how an unextended mind could move a body. Descartes, Meditationes (1641), Fifth Objections (AT VII 256–346); P. Gassendi, Disquisitio metaphysica (1644); SEP “Pierre Gassendi”
التوثيق: مسودة بالذكاء الاصطناعي
بيير جاسندي › 1592–1655
انتقده 28
أنطوان آرنو تأثّر بـأثّر في
تأثّر بـ
In the Fourth Replies (1641) Descartes accepted Arnauld’s advice and added to the Synopsis that the Fourth Meditation concerns error in judging truth, not sin. R. Descartes, Meditationes (1641), Synopsis and Fourth Replies; SEP “Antoine Arnauld”
التوثيق: مسودة بالذكاء الاصطناعي
أثّر في
Arnauld became a leading Cartesian: the Port-Royal Logic (1662, with Pierre Nicole) builds on Descartes’ clear and distinct ideas and his method. A. Arnauld and P. Nicole, La Logique ou l’art de penser (1662); SEP “Antoine Arnauld”
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انتقده
In the Fourth Objections (1641) Arnauld charged Descartes with circular reasoning about God and clear perception and questioned his denial of souls to animals. Descartes, Meditationes (1641), Fourth Objections (AT VII 197–218); SEP “Antoine Arnauld”
التوثيق: مسودة بالذكاء الاصطناعي
أنطوان آرنو › 1612–1694
إليزابيث البالاتيناتية تأثّر بـأثّر في
تأثّر بـ
Elisabeth’s questions about the union of mind and body and the control of the passions led Descartes to write The Passions of the Soul (1649). R. Descartes, Les Passions de l’âme (1649); Elisabeth–Descartes correspondence (1643–1649); SEP “Elisabeth of Bohemia”
التوثيق: مسودة بالذكاء الاصطناعي
أثّر في
From 1643 Elisabeth studied Descartes’ philosophy with him by letter; he dedicated the Principles of Philosophy (1644) to her, and in 1645 they discussed Seneca on happiness. Elisabeth of Bohemia and R. Descartes, The Correspondence, ed. and tr. L. Shapiro (2007); R. Descartes, Principia philosophiae (1644), dedication; SEP “Elisabeth of Bohemia”
التوثيق: مسودة بالذكاء الاصطناعي
انتقده
Elisabeth asked Descartes how an unextended thinking soul could move the body, since motion seems to require contact and extension (letter of 6/16 May 1643). Elisabeth to Descartes, 6/16 May 1643 (AT III 660–662); SEP “Elisabeth of Bohemia”
التوثيق: مسودة بالذكاء الاصطناعي
إليزابيث البالاتيناتية › 1618–1680
جون لوك أثّر في
أثّر في ✓
According to Damaris Masham, Descartes’ writings first gave Locke a relish for philosophy, for he found them intelligible even where he disagreed (letter to Le Clerc, 1705). D. Masham, letter to J. Le Clerc (Jan. 1705); M. Cranston, John Locke: A Biography (1957); SEP “John Locke”
انتقده
Locke denied innate ideas (Essay, 1689, Book I) and, against the Cartesians, that the soul always thinks, since thinking is its action, not its essence (II.i.10). J. Locke, An Essay concerning Human Understanding (1689), I.ii–iv, II.i.10–19; SEP “John Locke”
التوثيق: مسودة بالذكاء الاصطناعي
جون لوك › 1632–1704
باروخ سبينوزا أثّر في
أثّر في ✓
Spinoza’s first published book, Principles of Cartesian Philosophy (1663), set out Descartes’ Principles in geometrical order, with his Metaphysical Thoughts appended. B. Spinoza, Renati Des Cartes Principiorum philosophiae pars I et II, more geometrico demonstratae (1663), with Cogitata metaphysica; SEP “Baruch Spinoza”
انتقده
Spinoza called Descartes’ account of the mind steering the body through the pineal gland ‘more occult than any occult quality’ (Ethics, 1677, V, Preface). B. Spinoza, Ethica (1677), V, Praefatio; II P48–49 (against free will); SEP “Baruch Spinoza”
التوثيق: مسودة بالذكاء الاصطناعي
باروخ سبينوزا › 1632–1677
إسحاق نيوتن أثّر في
أثّر في ✓
Newton studied Descartes’ Géométrie and Principia philosophiae (1660s); his first law is close to Descartes’ laws of nature, and his title echoes Descartes’ (Principia, 1687). I. Newton, Philosophiae naturalis principia mathematica (1687); R. Descartes, Principia philosophiae (1644); R. S. Westfall, Never at Rest (1980); SEP “Isaac Newton”
التوثيق: مسجّل أيضًا في Wikidata · Wikidata
انتقده
Newton argued that Descartes’ vortices cannot account for Kepler’s laws (Principia II, 1687), and rejected his identification of space with body (De gravitatione). I. Newton, Principia (1687) II, scholium to prop. 53; De gravitatione et aequipondio fluidorum; SEP “Newton’s Philosophy”
التوثيق: مسودة بالذكاء الاصطناعي
إسحاق نيوتن › 1643–1727
غوتفريد لايبنتس أثّر في
أثّر في ✓
In Meditations on Knowledge, Truth and Ideas (1684) Leibniz refined Descartes’ clear and distinct ideas and completed his ontological proof by requiring God’s possibility to be shown. G. W. Leibniz, Meditationes de cognitione, veritate et ideis (Acta Eruditorum, 1684); SEP “Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz”
انتقده
Leibniz argued that Descartes’ law conserving quantity of motion is false: what is conserved is living force, mv² (Brevis demonstratio, 1686; Discourse on Metaphysics, §17). G. W. Leibniz, Brevis demonstratio erroris memorabilis Cartesii (Acta Eruditorum, 1686); Discours de métaphysique (1686), §17
التوثيق: مسودة بالذكاء الاصطناعي
غوتفريد لايبنتس › 1646–1716
عرض الكل (28)عرض أقل
توماس هوبز
انتقده
Hobbes argued that a thinking thing might be corporeal and that we have no idea of God or of the soul in Descartes’ sense (Third Objections, 1641). Descartes, Meditationes (1641), Third Objections and Replies (AT VII 171–196)
التوثيق: مسودة بالذكاء الاصطناعي
توماس هوبز › 1588–1679
مارغريت كافنديش
انتقده
In Philosophical Letters (1664) Cavendish rejected Descartes’ separation of an immaterial mind from inert matter, holding that all matter is self-moving, perceptive and rational. M. Cavendish, Philosophical Letters (1664), Part I; SEP “Margaret Lucas Cavendish”
التوثيق: مسودة بالذكاء الاصطناعي
مارغريت كافنديش › 1623–1673
بليز باسكال
انتقده
Pascal could not forgive Descartes for wanting to do without God, needing him only for a flick to set the world in motion (Pensées, fr. 1001 Lafuma). B. Pascal, Pensées, ed. Lafuma, fr. 1001 (Brunschvicg 77); fr. 887 (B 78: “Descartes inutile et incertain”)
التوثيق: مسودة بالذكاء الاصطناعي
بليز باسكال › 1623–1662
آن كانواي
انتقده
Conway held against Descartes that body and spirit differ only in degree, so matter is not dead extension (Principles of the Most Ancient and Modern Philosophy, 1690). A. Conway, Principia philosophiae antiquissimae et recentissimae (1690), chs. 7–9; SEP “Anne Conway”
التوثيق: مسودة بالذكاء الاصطناعي
آن كانواي › 1631–1679
جيامباتيستا فيكو
انتقده
Vico objected that Descartes’ cogito gives consciousness, not knowledge, of being, for we know truly only what we make (De antiquissima Italorum sapientia, 1710). G. Vico, De antiquissima Italorum sapientia (1710), ch. I; De nostri temporis studiorum ratione (1709); SEP “Giambattista Vico”
التوثيق: مسودة بالذكاء الاصطناعي
جيامباتيستا فيكو › 1668–1744
أنطون ويلهلم أمو
انتقده
Amo turned against Cartesian interaction: the mind, active and immaterial, cannot sense or suffer, so sensation belongs to the living, organic body (De humanae mentis apatheia, 1734). A. W. Amo, Dissertatio inauguralis philosophica de humanae mentis apatheia (Wittenberg, 1734); S. Menn & J. E. H. Smith (eds.), Anton Wilhelm Amo’s Philosophical Dissertations on Mind and Body (2020)
التوثيق: مسودة بالذكاء الاصطناعي
أنطون ويلهلم أمو › نحو 1703–1759
ديفيد هيوم
انتقده
Hume objected that Descartes’ antecedent universal doubt would be incurable, since no principle could restore trust in our faculties once all were suspended (Enquiry, 1748, XII). D. Hume, An Enquiry concerning Human Understanding (1748), XII.i; SEP “David Hume”
التوثيق: مسودة بالذكاء الاصطناعي
ديفيد هيوم › 1711–1776
إيمانويل كانط
انتقده
Kant rejected Descartes’ inference from ‘I think’ to a simple thinking substance (Paralogisms) and argued that inner experience presupposes outer objects (Refutation of Idealism, B 274–279). I. Kant, Kritik der reinen Vernunft, A 341–405 / B 399–432 (Paralogisms); B 274–279 (Refutation of Idealism)
التوثيق: مسودة بالذكاء الاصطناعي
إيمانويل كانط › 1724–1804
تشارلز ساندرز برس
انتقده
Peirce rejected Cartesian doubt – ‘let us not pretend to doubt in philosophy what we do not doubt in our hearts’ (‘Some Consequences of Four Incapacities’, 1868). C. S. Peirce, “Some Consequences of Four Incapacities”, Journal of Speculative Philosophy 2 (1868); SEP “Charles Sanders Peirce”
التوثيق: مسودة بالذكاء الاصطناعي
تشارلز ساندرز برس › 1839–1914
غاستون باشلار
انتقده
Bachelard called for a ‘non-Cartesian epistemology’: modern physics replaces Descartes’ simple, clear and distinct ideas with complex constructions (Le nouvel esprit scientifique, 1934, ch. 6). G. Bachelard, Le nouvel esprit scientifique (1934), ch. 6 ‘L’épistémologie non-cartésienne’
التوثيق: مسودة بالذكاء الاصطناعي
غاستون باشلار › 1884–1962
مارتن هايدغر
انتقده
Heidegger objected that Descartes leaves the being of the ‘sum’ unexamined and reduces the world to measurable extension, missing being-in-the-world (Being and Time, 1927, §§ 6, 19–21). M. Heidegger, Sein und Zeit (1927), §§ 6, 19–21; SEP “Martin Heidegger”
التوثيق: مسودة بالذكاء الاصطناعي
مارتن هايدغر › 1889–1976
نوربيرت إلياس
انتقده
Elias traced the image of the individual as a homo clausus, sealed off from others, to Descartes’ cogito, and opposed it with figurations (Civilizing Process, 1969 introduction). N. Elias, Über den Prozeß der Zivilisation, 2nd ed. (1969), Introduction; Die Gesellschaft der Individuen (1987), Part II
التوثيق: مسودة بالذكاء الاصطناعي
نوربيرت إلياس › 1897–1990
غلبرت رايل
انتقده
Ryle called the Cartesian ‘official doctrine’ of mind and body the dogma of the ‘Ghost in the Machine’, a category mistake (The Concept of Mind, 1949). G. Ryle, The Concept of Mind (1949), ch. 1
التوثيق: مسودة بالذكاء الاصطناعي
غلبرت رايل › 1900–1976
موريس ميرلو بونتي
انتقده
Merleau-Ponty rejected Descartes’ split between thinking mind and extended body, analysing perception through the lived body (Phenomenology of Perception, 1945); Eye and Mind (1961) contests his Optics. M. Merleau-Ponty, Phénoménologie de la perception (1945); L’Œil et l’esprit (1961), part III, on Descartes’ Dioptrique; SEP “Maurice Merleau-Ponty”
التوثيق: مسودة بالذكاء الاصطناعي
موريس ميرلو بونتي › 1908–1961
هيلاري بوتنام
انتقده
Putnam argued that the brain-in-a-vat hypothesis, a modern version of Descartes’ demon, refutes itself: envatted brains could not even refer to vats (Reason, Truth and History, 1981). H. Putnam, Reason, Truth and History (1981), ch. 1 “Brains in a Vat”; R. Descartes, Meditationes (1641), I
التوثيق: مسودة بالذكاء الاصطناعي
هيلاري بوتنام › 1926–2016
أنيبال كيخانو
انتقده
Quijano traced the Eurocentric paradigm of knowledge to the Cartesian separation of a knowing subject, as reason, from its object and from the body – a dualism that in his account allowed the colonised to be classed as nature and body; critics dispute that Eurocentrism derives from Descartes. A. Quijano, “Colonialidad y modernidad/racionalidad”, Perú Indígena 13:29 (1992); “Colonialidad del poder, eurocentrismo y América Latina”, in E. Lander (ed.), La colonialidad del saber (2000)
التوثيق: مسودة بالذكاء الاصطناعي
أنيبال كيخانو › 1928–2018
ريتشارد رورتي
انتقده
Rorty argued that Descartes invented the mind as an inner mirror of nature, founding a philosophy centred on epistemology (Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature, 1979, ch. 1). R. Rorty, Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (1979), ch. 1; SEP “Richard Rorty”
التوثيق: مسودة بالذكاء الاصطناعي
ريتشارد رورتي › 1931–2007
توم ريجان
انتقده
Regan rejected Descartes’ denial of consciousness to animals as unfounded: many mammals are ‘subjects-of-a-life’ with beliefs, desires and inherent value (The Case for Animal Rights, 1983, ch. 1). T. Regan, The Case for Animal Rights (1983), ch. 1; R. Descartes, Discours de la méthode (1637), part V
التوثيق: مسودة بالذكاء الاصطناعي
توم ريجان › 1938–2017
دانيال دينيت
انتقده
Dennett attacked the ‘Cartesian Theater’, a central place in the brain where it all comes together for consciousness, surviving as ‘Cartesian materialism’ (Consciousness Explained, 1991). D. C. Dennett, Consciousness Explained (1991), ch. 5; D. C. Dennett & M. Kinsbourne, “Time and the Observer”, Behavioral and Brain Sciences 15 (1992)
التوثيق: مسودة بالذكاء الاصطناعي
دانيال دينيت › 1942–2024
آندي كلارك
انتقده
Clark rejected the Cartesian picture of the mind as an inner, disembodied reasoner: cognition is embodied and can extend into tools and environment (Being There, 1997). A. Clark, Being There (1997); A. Clark & D. J. Chalmers, “The Extended Mind”, Analysis 58 (1998); Supersizing the Mind (2008)
التوثيق: مسودة بالذكاء الاصطناعي
آندي كلارك › وُلد 1957
توماس ميتزنغر
انتقده
Metzinger argued that the Cartesian intuition of an irreducible self stems from the mind’s representational structure: there are no selves, only transparent self-models (Being No One, 2003). T. Metzinger, Being No One: The Self-Model Theory of Subjectivity (2003); The Ego Tunnel (2009)
التوثيق: مسودة بالذكاء الاصطناعي
توماس ميتزنغر › وُلد 1958
براين بيركهارت
انتقده
Burkhart read Descartes’ thinking I as a subject without land or culture, an example of the Western ‘delocality’ that served colonisation (Indigenizing Philosophy through the Land, 2019). B. Burkhart, Indigenizing Philosophy through the Land (2019); cf. E. Dussel, 1492: El encubrimiento del otro (1992) on ego cogito and ego conquiro
التوثيق: مسودة بالذكاء الاصطناعي
براين بيركهارت › معاصر
ينتقد 1
أرسطو
انتقد
Descartes rejected the scholastic-Aristotelian substantial forms and real qualities, explaining nature by extension and motion and banishing final causes from physics (letter to Regius, January 1642; Meditations IV). Descartes to Regius, Jan. 1642 (AT III 491–510); Meditationes IV (AT VII 55); Principia philosophiae IV §§198–203; SEP “Descartes’ Physics”
التوثيق: مسودة بالذكاء الاصطناعي
أرسطو › 384–322 ق.م
الأعمال
- 1637مقال عن المنهج
أربع قواعد للفكر وأول «أنا أفكر، إذن أنا موجود».
الشك الجذري، والكوجيتو، وبراهين وجود الله، وثنائية العقل والجسد.
الموقف
Descartes wanted to rebuild knowledge on a foundation that could not be doubted. He doubted everything – the senses, the body, even mathematics, imagining an evil demon deceiving him – until one certainty remained: while I doubt, I think, and so I exist. From this “I think, therefore I am” he argued for God as guarantor of clear and distinct ideas, and for the reality of the external world. Mind, a thinking thing, and body, an extended thing, are two distinct substances – which raised the lasting puzzle of how they interact, a puzzle Princess Elisabeth of Bohemia pressed on him in 1643 and that he never fully solved. With analytic geometry and a mechanical physics he laid foundations for modern science; he is often called the father of modern philosophy and of rationalism.
الحياة والسياق
Born in 1596 in La Haye in Touraine, Descartes was educated by the Jesuits at La Flèche and studied law. He served as a volunteer soldier, and in 1619 had the insight that led him to a new method. He spent most of his productive life in the Dutch Republic. Invited by Queen Christina, he went to Stockholm in 1649 and died there in 1650.
أعمال رئيسة أخرى
- Rules for the Direction of the Mind (c. 1628)
- Discourse on the Method (1637)
- Meditations on First Philosophy (1641)
- Principles of Philosophy (1644)
- The Passions of the Soul (1649)
يرد في
- رحلة «الشكّ والذات» · المحطة 3 من 10
- رحلة «لغز الوعي» · المحطة 1 من 10
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