जाँ-जाक रुसो
मनुष्य स्वभाव से अच्छे हैं पर समाज उन्हें भ्रष्ट करता है, और न्यायपूर्ण राज्य सामान्य इच्छा का अनुसरण करता है – जो नागरिक साझे हित के लिए एक साथ चाहते हैं, न कि उनकी निजी इच्छाओं का योग।
पृष्ठभूमि
मनुष्य स्वभाव से अच्छा है, समाज उसे भ्रष्ट करता है; लोक-संप्रभुता और सामान्य इच्छा।
मुख्य विचार
- सामान्य इच्छा (volonté générale)
- प्राकृतिक अवस्था
- प्रकृति के अनुसार शिक्षा
प्रभाव
जिनसे प्रभावित 5
प्लेटो
जिनसे प्रभावित
In Emile (1762) Rousseau sent readers seeking an idea of public education to Plato’s Republic, ‘not a political work’ but ‘the finest treatise on education ever written’. J.-J. Rousseau, Émile ou De l’éducation (1762), Book I; SEP “Jean Jacques Rousseau”
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प्लेटो › 428–348 ईसा पूर्व
निक्कोलो माकियावेल्ली
जिनसे प्रभावित
In The Social Contract (1762) Rousseau read Machiavelli as a republican who, under the guise of instructing kings, gave peoples great lessons: The Prince is ‘the book of republicans’. J.-J. Rousseau, Du contrat social (1762), “De la monarchie”; SEP “Niccolò Machiavelli”
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निक्कोलो माकियावेल्ली › 1469–1527
जॉन लॉक
जिनसे प्रभावित
Rousseau’s Emile (1762) builds on ‘the wise Locke’ and his Some Thoughts concerning Education (1693), while rejecting its maxim of reasoning with children. J.-J. Rousseau, Émile ou De l’éducation (1762); J. Locke, Some Thoughts concerning Education (1693); SEP “Jean Jacques Rousseau”
साक्ष्य: InPhO में भी · InPhO
जॉन लॉक › 1632–1704
मोंतेस्क्यू
जिनसे प्रभावित
Rousseau accepted as ‘established by Montesquieu’ the principle that liberty, not being a fruit of every climate, is not within every people’s reach (Social Contract, 1762). J.-J. Rousseau, Du contrat social (1762), Book III; Montesquieu, De l’esprit des lois (1748); SEP “Jean Jacques Rousseau”
साक्ष्य: InPhO में भी · InPhO
मोंतेस्क्यू › 1689–1755
डेनिस दिदरो
जिनसे प्रभावित
Visiting the imprisoned Diderot at Vincennes in 1749, Rousseau was encouraged by him to answer the Dijon prize question (Discourse on the Sciences and Arts, 1750). J.-J. Rousseau, Les Confessions (1782–89); Discours sur les sciences et les arts (1750); SEP “Jean Jacques Rousseau”
साक्ष्य: InPhO में भी · InPhO
डेनिस दिदरो › 1713–1784
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया 13
इमानुएल कांट
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया ✓
In his Remarks on the Observations (1764–65) Kant wrote that Rousseau had set him right: he learned to honour human beings, not only to prize knowledge. I. Kant, Bemerkungen in den “Beobachtungen über das Gefühl des Schönen und Erhabenen” (1764–65); SEP “Kant’s Moral Philosophy”
इमानुएल कांट › 1724–1804
योहान गॉटलीब फ़िशटे
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया ✓
Fichte’s Lectures on the Scholar’s Vocation (1794) examined Rousseau’s claims about the arts and sciences, honouring him but turning his longing for the past into forward striving. J. G. Fichte, Einige Vorlesungen über die Bestimmung des Gelehrten (1794); SEP “Johann Gottlieb Fichte”
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योहान गॉटलीब फ़िशटे › 1762–1814
गेऑर्ग विल्हेल्म फ़्रीडरिश हेगल
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया ✓
Hegel credited Rousseau with making the will the principle of the state, though he faulted the general will as a common will of individuals (Philosophy of Right, 1820). G. W. F. Hegel, Grundlinien der Philosophie des Rechts (1820), on the state; SEP “Hegel’s Social and Political Philosophy”
गेऑर्ग विल्हेल्म फ़्रीडरिश हेगल › 1770–1831
लेव तोलस्तोय
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया ✓
Tolstoy told Paul Boyer (1901) that Rousseau had been his master since he was fifteen; he wore a medallion with Rousseau’s portrait instead of a cross. P. Boyer, interview with Tolstoy (1901); SEP “Jean Jacques Rousseau”
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लेव तोलस्तोय › 1828–1910
एमिल दुरकेम
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
In lectures on the Social Contract (printed 1918) Durkheim read Rousseau’s general will as anticipating his view of society as a moral reality above individuals. É. Durkheim, “Le Contrat social de Rousseau”, Revue de métaphysique et de morale 25 (1918), in Montesquieu et Rousseau, précurseurs de la sociologie (1953); SEP “Jean Jacques Rousseau”
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एमिल दुरकेम › 1858–1917
जॉन राल्स
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Rawls placed justice as fairness in Rousseau’s contract tradition and read the general will as citizens’ shared reasoning about the common good (lectures, publ. 2007). J. Rawls, Lectures on the History of Political Philosophy, ed. S. Freeman (2007); A Theory of Justice (1971); SEP “John Rawls”
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जॉन राल्स › 1921–2002
सभी दिखाएँ (13)कम दिखाएँ
योहान गॉटफ़्रीड हेर्डर
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
In his Journal of My Voyage in 1769 Herder sketched Rousseauian plans of education, and his Treatise on the Origin of Language (1772) argued with Rousseau’s Second Discourse. J. G. Herder, Journal meiner Reise im Jahr 1769 (publ. 1846); Abhandlung über den Ursprung der Sprache (1772); SEP “Johann Gottfried von Herder”
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योहान गॉटफ़्रीड हेर्डर › 1744–1803
ओलिम्प द गूज
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Gouges’ Declaration of the Rights of Woman (1791) ends with a ‘Form for a Social Contract between Man and Woman’ that, echoing Rousseau, recasts marriage as a contract. O. de Gouges, Déclaration des droits de la femme et de la citoyenne (1791), postscript; J. W. Scott, Only Paradoxes to Offer: French Feminists and the Rights of Man (1996)
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ओलिम्प द गूज › 1748–1793
सोफ़ी द ग्रूशी
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Evelyn Forget reads Grouchy’s Letters on Sympathy (1798) as seeing Smith through Rousseau, notably in tying the growth of sympathy to Rousseauian ideas of education. S. de Grouchy, Lettres sur la sympathie (1798); E. L. Forget, “Cultivating Sympathy: Sophie Condorcet’s Letters on Sympathy”, Journal of the History of Economic Thought (2001)
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सोफ़ी द ग्रूशी › 1764–1822
रिफ़ा अत-तहतावी
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Al-Tahtawi listed Rousseau’s Social Contract among the political works he read in Paris and judged it very valuable. R. al-Ṭahṭāwī, Takhlīṣ al-ibrīz (1834); Newman 2004; A. Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age (1962)
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रिफ़ा अत-तहतावी › 1801–1873
अलेक्सी द तोकविल
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Tocqueville named Rousseau, with Pascal and Montesquieu, as authors he ‘lived with’ a little each day (1836); P. A. Rahe finds all three present in Democracy in America. A. de Tocqueville, letter to L. de Kergorlay (Nov. 1836); P. A. Rahe, Soft Despotism, Democracy’s Drift: Montesquieu, Rousseau, Tocqueville, and the Modern Prospect (2009)
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अलेक्सी द तोकविल › 1805–1859
लियांग छिचाओ
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Liang Qichao introduced Rousseau’s social contract and popular sovereignty in ‘On Rousseau’ (Lusuo xue’an, 1901), turning after 1903 to Bluntschli’s theory of the state. Liang Qichao, Lusuo xue’an (1901); Zhengzhixue dajia Bolunzhili zhi xueshuo (1903); H. Chang, Liang Ch’i-ch’ao and Intellectual Transition in China (1971)
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लियांग छिचाओ › 1873–1929
क्लोद लेवी-स्त्रोस
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
In a lecture of 1962 Lévi-Strauss called Rousseau founder of the human sciences, making his identification with the other and all living beings anthropology’s principle. C. Lévi-Strauss, “Jean-Jacques Rousseau, fondateur des sciences de l’homme” (1962), in Anthropologie structurale deux (1973); Tristes tropiques (1955); SEP “Jean Jacques Rousseau”
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क्लोद लेवी-स्त्रोस › 1908–2009
आलोचना
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित 8
एडमण्ड बर्क
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Burke called Rousseau ‘the insane Socrates of the National Assembly’ and attacked his ‘philosophy of vanity’ (Letter to a Member of the National Assembly, 1791). E. Burke, A Letter to a Member of the National Assembly (1791)
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एडमण्ड बर्क › 1729–1797
मेरी वुलस्टोनक्राफ़्ट जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Wollstonecraft shared Rousseau’s critique of rank and luxury and his call for an education strengthening body and mind, but extended it to girls (Rights of Woman, 1792). M. Wollstonecraft, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792); SEP “Mary Wollstonecraft”
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जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Wollstonecraft attacked Rousseau’s Émile for training Sophie for dependence and pleasing men, insisting that women need the same rational education as men (Rights of Woman, 1792, ch. 5). M. Wollstonecraft, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), ch. 5; SEP “Mary Wollstonecraft”
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मेरी वुलस्टोनक्राफ़्ट › 1759–1797
पिएर जोसेफ प्रूधों
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Proudhon found ‘no vestige’ of a real contract in Rousseau’s Social Contract, only a legitimation of government instead of free agreements (General Idea of the Revolution, 1851). P.-J. Proudhon, Idée générale de la Révolution au XIXe siècle (1851); H. Rosenblatt & P. Schweigert, “Rousseau and Proudhon”, in Thinking with Rousseau (2017)
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पिएर जोसेफ प्रूधों › 1809–1865
आइज़ैया बर्लिन
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Berlin saw in Rousseau’s general will, which can ‘force’ a citizen ‘to be free’, a source of positive liberty turned into coercion (Freedom and Its Betrayal, 1952). I. Berlin, Freedom and Its Betrayal (BBC lectures 1952; publ. 2002); J.-J. Rousseau, Du contrat social (1762), I.7
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आइज़ैया बर्लिन › 1909–1997
जाक देरिदा
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
In Of Grammatology (1967) Derrida argued that Rousseau condemns writing as a dangerous supplement to speech and nature, while his texts depend on the supplement throughout. J. Derrida, De la grammatologie (1967), part II, chs. 2–4; J.-J. Rousseau, Essai sur l’origine des langues; Confessions III
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जाक देरिदा › 1930–2004
कैरोल पेटमैन जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Pateman made Rousseau the central theorist of participatory democracy, in which citizens learn self-government by taking part in it (Participation and Democratic Theory, 1970). C. Pateman, Participation and Democratic Theory (1970); J.-J. Rousseau, Du contrat social (1762)
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जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Pateman argued that Rousseau’s social contract rests on a prior ‘sexual contract’ that subordinates women and keeps them out of the civil order (The Sexual Contract, 1988). C. Pateman, The Sexual Contract (1988); “The Disorder of Women: Women, Love, and the Sense of Justice”, Ethics 91 (1980)
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कैरोल पेटमैन › जन्म 1940
सभी दिखाएँ (8)कम दिखाएँ
कैथरीन मैकॉले
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
In Letters on Education (1790) Macaulay rejected Rousseau’s separate education for girls, holding that virtue and reason have no sex and that both sexes should be taught alike. C. Macaulay, Letters on Education (1790), Part I; SEP “Catharine Macaulay”
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कैथरीन मैकॉले › 1731–1791
चार्ल्स डब्ल्यू. मिल्स
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Mills argued that Rousseau’s ‘savages’ are always non-Europeans, and that his account of Europe’s lead through metallurgy and agriculture is historically inaccurate (The Racial Contract, 1997). C. W. Mills, The Racial Contract (1997); J.-J. Rousseau, Discours sur l’origine et les fondements de l’inégalité (1755), part II
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चार्ल्स डब्ल्यू. मिल्स › 1951–2021
जिनकी आलोचना की 4
हुगो ग्रोटियस
जिनकी आलोचना की
Rousseau objected that Grotius establishes right by fact, deriving a right to enslave captives and subject peoples from what actually happens (Social Contract, 1762, I.2, I.4). J.-J. Rousseau, Du contrat social (1762), I.2, I.4
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हुगो ग्रोटियस › 1583–1645
थॉमस हॉब्स जिनसे प्रभावित
जिनसे प्रभावित
In The Social Contract (1762) Rousseau praised Hobbes as the only Christian author who dared to reunite the ‘two heads of the eagle’, state and church. J.-J. Rousseau, Du contrat social (1762), “De la religion civile”; SEP “Jean Jacques Rousseau”
साक्ष्य: InPhO में भी · InPhO
जिनकी आलोचना की
Rousseau objected that Hobbes gave natural man the passions of social man and overlooked natural pity (Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, 1755, Part I). J.-J. Rousseau, Discours sur l’origine et les fondements de l’inégalité (1755), Part I; SEP “Jean Jacques Rousseau”
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थॉमस हॉब्स › 1588–1679
बर्नार्ड मैंडेविल
जिनकी आलोचना की
Rousseau granted Mandeville that pity is natural but objected that he missed that generosity, clemency and humanity all flow from it (Second Discourse, 1755). J.-J. Rousseau, Discours sur l’origine de l’inégalité (1755), Part I
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बर्नार्ड मैंडेविल › 1670–1733
वोल्तेर
जिनकी आलोचना की
Rousseau answered Voltaire’s Lisbon poem by defending Providence: the city’s people, not nature, had crowded twenty thousand tall houses together (Letter to Voltaire, 18 August 1756). J.-J. Rousseau, Lettre à Voltaire sur la Providence, 18 Aug. 1756; Voltaire, Poème sur le désastre de Lisbonne (1756)
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वोल्तेर › 1694–1778
कृतियाँ
जिस पहले मनुष्य ने ज़मीन का टुकड़ा घेरा, वही नागरिक समाज का सच्चा संस्थापक था।
एक प्राकृतिक शिक्षा – एमिल के लिए; इसके विपरीत सोफ़ी को उसकी संगिनी बनने के लिए पाला जाता है।
- 1762सामाजिक अनुबंध
मनुष्य स्वतंत्र पैदा होता है, और हर जगह वह बेड़ियों में है – लोक-संप्रभुता।
- 1782कन्फ़ेशन्स
1765 तक के उनके जीवन पर बारह पुस्तकें, 1765–1770 में लिखी गईं और उनकी मृत्यु के बाद प्रकाशित हुईं (1782 और 1789): वे एक मनुष्य को “प्रकृति के पूरे सत्य में” दिखाना चाहते हैं – उस रिबन समेत जो उन्होंने चुराया और एक युवा नौकरानी पर थोप दिया, और उन पाँच बच्चों समेत जिन्हें उन्होंने अनाथ-शिशु गृह में छोड़ दिया।
मत
Rousseau argued that human beings are naturally good, free and self-sufficient, and that it is society – property, competition and the craving for recognition – that makes them unequal and corrupt. But there is no way back to nature. The Social Contract instead seeks a political order in which each, by uniting with all, “obeys only himself”: legitimate laws express the general will of the people, which is sovereign. In Emile he sketched an education that follows the child’s natural development – though its fifth book subordinates the girl Sophie’s education to Emile’s needs, the target of Mary Wollstonecraft’s critique. Rousseau’s ideas inspired the French Revolution, Kant’s concept of autonomy and Romanticism, and his critique of civilisation still resonates today.
जीवन और संदर्भ
Born in Geneva in 1712, Rousseau lost his mother at birth, left home as a teenager and taught himself through years of wandering. In Paris he befriended Diderot and won fame with a prize essay in 1750; the five children he had with Thérèse Levasseur he gave to a foundling hospital. When Emile and The Social Contract were condemned in 1762 he had to flee; a stay in England with Hume ended in a quarrel. He died in 1778 at Ermenonville.
अन्य प्रमुख कृतियाँ
- Discourse on the Sciences and Arts (1750)
- Discourse on Inequality (1755)
- Julie, or the New Heloise (1761)
- The Social Contract (1762)
- Emile, or On Education (1762)
- Reveries of the Solitary Walker (written 1776–1778, published 1782)
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