जे. जे. सी. स्मार्ट
पीड़ा जैसी कोई संवेदना केवल मस्तिष्क की एक प्रक्रिया है, और सही कर्म वह है जिसके परिणाम सबसे अच्छे हों।
पृष्ठभूमि
एडिलेड और कैनबरा के ब्रिटिश मूल के दार्शनिक: संवेदनाएँ मस्तिष्क-प्रक्रियाएँ हैं (“संवेदनाएँ और मस्तिष्क-प्रक्रियाएँ”, 1959); एक कर्म-उपयोगितावादी जिन्होंने कठोर नियम-पालन को “नियम-पूजा” कहा।
मुख्य विचार
- मन–मस्तिष्क तादात्म्य सिद्धांत
- विषय-निरपेक्ष विश्लेषण
- कर्म-उपयोगितावाद
- काल का कालरहित दृष्टिकोण
प्रभाव
जिनसे प्रभावित 3
हेनरी सिजविक
जिनसे प्रभावित
Smart rested his act utilitarianism on an ultimate attitude of generalised benevolence, close to Sidgwick’s axiom of benevolence (‘An Outline of a System of Utilitarian Ethics’, 1961). J. J. C. Smart, An Outline of a System of Utilitarian Ethics (1961); J. J. C. Smart and B. Williams, Utilitarianism: For and Against (1973); SEP “Henry Sidgwick”
साक्ष्य: AI मसौदा
हेनरी सिजविक › 1838–1900
गिल्बर्ट राइल
जिनसे प्रभावित
Smart, who studied with Ryle at Oxford, held a Rylean behaviourism at Adelaide until Place persuaded him that sensations are brain processes (‘Sensations and Brain Processes’, 1959). J. J. C. Smart, “Sensations and Brain Processes”, Philosophical Review 68 (1959); G. Ryle, The Concept of Mind (1949); SEP “The Mind/Brain Identity Theory”
साक्ष्य: InPhO में भी · InPhO
गिल्बर्ट राइल › 1900–1976
यू. टी. प्लेस
जिनसे प्रभावित
Convinced by his Adelaide colleague Place, Smart defended the identity of sensations and brain processes and answered objections to Place’s thesis (‘Sensations and Brain Processes’, 1959). J. J. C. Smart, “Sensations and Brain Processes”, Philosophical Review 68 (1959); U. T. Place, “Is Consciousness a Brain Process?”, British Journal of Psychology 47 (1956); SEP “The Mind/Brain Identity Theory”
साक्ष्य: AI मसौदा
यू. टी. प्लेस › 1924–2000
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया 2
डेविड लेविस
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Lewis gave Smart’s identity of experiences and brain processes a new argument: experiences are defined by their causal roles, and the occupants of these roles are physical (1966). D. Lewis, “An Argument for the Identity Theory”, Journal of Philosophy 63 (1966); J. J. C. Smart, “Sensations and Brain Processes” (1959); SEP “The Mind/Brain Identity Theory”
साक्ष्य: AI मसौदा
डेविड लेविस › 1941–2001
फ़्रैंक जैक्सन
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया
Jackson worked within the Australian materialism shaped by Smart: after the knowledge argument (1982) he returned to a physicalism defended by conceptual analysis (From Metaphysics to Ethics, 1998). F. Jackson, From Metaphysics to Ethics: A Defence of Conceptual Analysis (1998); “Epiphenomenal Qualia”, Philosophical Quarterly 32 (1982); J. J. C. Smart, “Sensations and Brain Processes” (1959); SEP “Qualia: The Knowledge Argument”
साक्ष्य: AI मसौदा
फ़्रैंक जैक्सन › जन्म 1943
आलोचना
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित 2
हिलरी पट्नम
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Putnam objected to Smart’s identity of sensations and brain processes that pain can be realised in different systems, so mental states are functional states (‘Psychological Predicates’, 1967). H. Putnam, “Psychological Predicates” (1967), repr. as “The Nature of Mental States”; J. J. C. Smart, “Sensations and Brain Processes”, Philosophical Review 68 (1959)
साक्ष्य: AI मसौदा
हिलरी पट्नम › 1926–2016
बर्नार्ड विलियम्स
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Answering Smart, Williams argued that utilitarian ‘negative responsibility’ turns agents into channels for the best outcome and attacks their integrity (Utilitarianism: For and Against, 1973). B. Williams, “A Critique of Utilitarianism”, in J. J. C. Smart & B. Williams, Utilitarianism: For and Against (1973), §§ 3–5 (the cases of George and Jim)
साक्ष्य: AI मसौदा
बर्नार्ड विलियम्स › 1929–2003
कृतियाँ
संवेदनाएँ मस्तिष्क-प्रक्रियाएँ हैं: तादात्म्य आकस्मिक है और विज्ञान द्वारा खोजा गया है, जैसे बिजली कड़कने और विद्युत-विसर्जन का।
स्मार्ट कर्म-उपयोगितावाद का बचाव करते हैं, विलियम्स उस पर प्रहार करते हैं – रसायनज्ञ जॉर्ज और जिम के मामलों के साथ, जिनसे बीस बंदियों में से एक को गोली मारने को कहा जाता है ताकि बाकी उन्नीस छूट जाएँ।
मत
At Adelaide Smart defended a Rylean, behaviourist account of the mind until discussions with his colleague U. T. Place convinced him otherwise. “Sensations and Brain Processes” (1959) argued that sensations are brain processes. The identity is contingent, discovered by science rather than by analysing meanings, just as lightning turned out to be an electrical discharge; so it is no objection that “I have a pain” does not mean “a certain brain process is going on”. To answer the worry that sensations have special properties, he proposed “topic-neutral” translations: a report of an after-image says that something is going on in me like what goes on when I see an orange. Simplicity and Occam’s razor speak for the identity. The theory became known as Australian materialism; Putnam’s argument that the same mental state can be realised in different physical systems was its main challenge. In ethics Smart defended act utilitarianism: the right act is the one with the best consequences, and sticking to a rule when breaking it would be better is “superstitious rule worship”. Utilitarianism: For and Against (1973) paired his defence with Bernard Williams’s attack. In metaphysics he held a tenseless, four-dimensional view of time in which the passage of time is an illusion.
जीवन और संदर्भ
John Jamieson Carswell Smart was born in 1920 in Cambridge, England, to Scottish parents; his father was the astronomer W. M. Smart, and his brother Ninian became a scholar of religion. He studied at Glasgow, served in the British Army in India and Burma during the Second World War and then took the BPhil at Oxford. In 1950 he became professor of philosophy at the University of Adelaide, where he remained until 1972, before moving to La Trobe University and in 1976 to the Australian National University in Canberra. He was made a Companion of the Order of Australia in 1990 and died in Melbourne in 2012.
अन्य प्रमुख कृतियाँ
- Extreme and Restricted Utilitarianism (1956)
- Sensations and Brain Processes (1959)
- An Outline of a System of Utilitarian Ethics (1961)
- Philosophy and Scientific Realism (1963)
- Utilitarianism: For and Against (with Bernard Williams, 1973)
- Our Place in the Universe (1989)
इनमें आता है
- बहस ‘चेतना क्या है?’
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