एडवर्ड वेस्टरमार्क
नैतिक निर्णय अनुमोदन और अननुमोदन की उन भावनाओं को व्यक्त करते हैं जो निःस्वार्थ हो गई हैं; चूँकि ये भावनाएँ अनुभव, विश्वास और रिवाज पर निर्भर हैं, नैतिक विचार समाजों में भिन्न होते हैं और कोई वस्तुनिष्ठ वैधता का दावा नहीं कर सकता – जो हमें सहिष्णु बनाए, उदासीन नहीं।
पृष्ठभूमि
हेलसिंकी, तुर्कु और लंदन के फ़िनिश दार्शनिक और समाजशास्त्री: नैतिक निर्णय अनुमोदन और आक्रोश की भावनाओं पर टिके हैं, इसीलिए नैतिक विचार समाजों के बीच भिन्न होते हैं; उन्होंने अनाचार से बचाव को साथ पले लोगों के बीच विकर्षण से समझाया।
मुख्य विचार
- नैतिक सापेक्षता
- नैतिक भावनाएँ
- मानव विवाह का इतिहास
- वेस्टरमार्क प्रभाव
शिष्य: ब्रॉनिस्लाव मालिनोव्स्की
प्रभाव
जिनसे प्रभावित 3
डेविड ह्यूम
जिनसे प्रभावित
Westermarck placed his theory that moral judgements express disinterested emotions of approval and disapproval in Hume’s tradition, naming Hume a forerunner (Ethical Relativity, 1932). E. Westermarck, Ethical Relativity (1932); The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas (1906–08); T. Stroup, Westermarck’s Ethics (1982); SEP “Hume’s Moral Philosophy”
साक्ष्य: AI मसौदा
डेविड ह्यूम › 1711–1776
एडम स्मिथ
जिनसे प्रभावित
Westermarck drew on Smith’s Theory of Moral Sentiments for the disinterestedness and apparent impartiality that make retributive emotions moral (Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, 1906–08). E. Westermarck, The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas (1906–08); O. Pipatti, Morality Made Visible: Edward Westermarck’s Moral and Social Theory (2019); SEP “Adam Smith’s Moral and Political Philosophy”
साक्ष्य: AI मसौदा
एडम स्मिथ › 1723–1790
चार्ल्स डार्विन
जिनसे प्रभावित
Westermarck framed The History of Human Marriage (1891) with Darwin’s theory of descent and selection, arguing that lasting pair bonds, not promiscuity, go back to the earliest humans. E. Westermarck, The History of Human Marriage (1891); C. Darwin, The Descent of Man (1871)
साक्ष्य: AI मसौदा
चार्ल्स डार्विन › 1809–1882
जिन्हें प्रभावित किया 1
ब्रॉनिस्लाव मालिनोव्स्की जिन्हें पढ़ाया
जिन्हें पढ़ाया
Malinowski came to the London School of Economics in 1910 to study with Westermarck and C. G. Seligman; there he wrote The Family among the Australian Aborigines (1913), and he took his DSc in 1916. M. W. Young, Malinowski: Odyssey of an Anthropologist, 1884–1920 (2004)
साक्ष्य: AI मसौदा
ब्रॉनिस्लाव मालिनोव्स्की › 1884–1942
आलोचना
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित 2
ज़ीगमुंड फ़्रॉइड
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Freud rejected Westermarck’s view that growing up together breeds sexual aversion: if incest were naturally avoided, it would need no strict prohibition (Totem und Tabu, 1913, ch. 4). S. Freud, Totem und Tabu (1913), ch. IV; E. Westermarck, The History of Human Marriage, 1891
साक्ष्य: AI मसौदा
ज़ीगमुंड फ़्रॉइड › 1856–1939
क्लोद लेवी-स्त्रोस
जिनके द्वारा आलोचित
Lévi-Strauss rejected Westermarck’s derivation of the incest taboo from an innate aversion among those raised together: what instinct secured would need no prohibition (Elementary Structures, 1949). C. Lévi-Strauss, Les structures élémentaires de la parenté (1949), ch. 2; E. Westermarck, The History of Human Marriage (1891)
साक्ष्य: AI मसौदा
क्लोद लेवी-स्त्रोस › 1908–2009
कृतियाँ
उनके डॉक्टरेट कार्य से उपजा तुलनात्मक इतिहास: आदि स्वच्छंदता के सिद्धांतों के विरुद्ध वह तर्क देता है कि टिकाऊ जोड़ी-बंधन आरंभिक मनुष्यों तक जाते हैं, और अनाचार से बचाव को साथ पलने वाले लोगों के बीच उपजे विकर्षण से समझाता है।
विश्वभर के नैतिक रिवाजों की तुलना करते दो खंड (1906–08): नैतिक निर्णय अनुमोदन और अस्वीकृति की उन भावनाओं से उठते हैं जो निःस्वार्थ और सामान्य बन गई हैं, जो समाजों के बीच उनकी समानताओं और विविधता, दोनों को समझाता है।
मत
Westermarck is on the map as a founder of comparative sociology and anthropology and as a classic defender of ethical relativity. “The History of Human Marriage” (1891) used Darwin’s theory and a wide range of ethnographic material against the then common view that human society began in promiscuity or group marriage: lasting pair bonds, he argued, go back to the earliest humans. To explain why incest is avoided, he proposed that people who grow up together develop an aversion to sexual relations with each other – a hypothesis rejected by Freud and Lévi-Strauss, but later supported by studies of Israeli kibbutzim and of “minor marriages” in Taiwan and now known as the “Westermarck effect”. In “The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas” (1906–08) and “Ethical Relativity” (1932) he held, in the tradition of Hume and Adam Smith, that moral judgements express emotions of approval and disapproval that have become disinterested; since these depend on circumstances, beliefs and customs, moral ideas vary, and none has objective validity. He did not conclude that anything goes, but expected greater tolerance from knowledge of the variety of moral opinion. His Moroccan studies remain an important source on North African ritual and belief.
जीवन और संदर्भ
Edvard Westermarck was born on 20 November 1862 in Helsinki into a Swedish-speaking family; his father was the university’s bursar. He studied philosophy in Helsinki and from 1887 worked in the library of the British Museum in London on the history of marriage, the basis of his doctoral thesis (1889) and of “The History of Human Marriage” (1891). He taught sociology in Helsinki, was professor of moral philosophy there from 1906 to 1918 and at the same time held a chair of sociology at the University of London (1907–30), where Bronisław Malinowski was among his students. From 1898 he spent many years in Morocco, studying rituals, beliefs and customs. In 1918 he became professor of philosophy and the first rector of Åbo Akademi, the Swedish-language university in Turku. He died on 3 September 1939.
अन्य प्रमुख कृतियाँ
- The History of Human Marriage (1891; 5th ed., 3 vols., 1921)
- The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas (2 vols., 1906–08)
- Ritual and Belief in Morocco (2 vols., 1926)
- Ethical Relativity (1932)
- Christianity and Morals (1939)
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