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Akshapada Gautama

c. 120–190

A first way ina deliberate simplification – the portrait says more

The text attributed to him lays out how we gain knowledge – by perception, inference, comparison and testimony – and how to argue fairly.

Placement

South Asian & Tibetan Philosophy · Logic, Epistemology, Metaphysics

To him the Nyaya Sutra is attributed, foundation of India’s school of logic: four valid means of knowledge, a five-step proof and rules for honest debate.

Key ideas

  • Four pramanas
  • Five-membered inference
  • Theory of debate

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Influence

Influenced by 1

  • Kanada

    influenced by

    The Nyaya-sutra presupposes much of the Vaisheshika ontology ascribed to Kanada, such as substances, qualities and atoms; dates and direction of influence are uncertain. B. K. Matilal, Nyaya-Vaisesika (1977); K. H. Potter (ed.), Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies II (1977)

    Evidence: AI draft

    Kanada › c. 200–130 BCE

Influenced 2

  • Udayana

    influenced

    Udayana worked within the tradition of the Nyaya-sutra, writing a subcommentary on its commentaries and using its theory of inference for his proofs of God (Nyayakusumanjali). Udayana, Nyayakusumanjali; K. H. Potter (ed.), Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies II (1977)

    Evidence: AI draft

    Udayana › c. 950–1020

  • Gangesha

    influenced

    Gangesha’s Jewel of Reflection on Reality (Tattvacintamani) is arranged by the four means of knowledge of the Nyaya-sutra: perception, inference, comparison and testimony. Gangesha, Tattvacintamani; K. H. Potter & S. Bhattacharyya (eds.), Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies VI (1993)

    Evidence: AI draft

    Gangesha › c. 1300–1360

Criticism

Criticized by 2

  • Nagarjuna

    criticised by disputed

    Nagarjuna asked what establishes the Nyaya means of knowledge themselves (Vigrahavyavartani 31–51); whether he knew the Nyaya-sutra in its present form is disputed. Nāgārjuna, Vigrahavyāvartanī 31–51, tr. J. Westerhoff, The Dispeller of Disputes, 2010; F. Tola & C. Dragonetti, Nāgārjuna’s Refutation of Logic, 1995

    Evidence: AI draft

    Nagarjuna › c. 150–250

  • Dignaga

    criticised by

    Dignaga accepted only perception and inference as means of knowledge, against the Nyaya-sutra’s four, and criticised its definition of perception (Pramanasamuccaya I–II). Dignāga, Pramāṇasamuccaya I–II; M. Hattori, Dignāga, On Perception, 1968

    Evidence: AI draft

    Dignaga › c. 480–540

Works

  • c. 150Nyaya Sutra

    Sixteen topics, from the means of valid knowledge to the tricks of dishonest debate: liberation through right knowledge.

Position

Nyaya (“method” or “logic”) holds that the world exists independently of us and can be known. The sutra lists sixteen topics, beginning with the means of valid knowledge (pramanas): perception, inference, comparison and reliable testimony. Inference is set out in five steps – thesis, reason, example, application, conclusion: the hill has fire, because it has smoke; wherever there is smoke there is fire, as in a kitchen. The text also distinguishes honest discussion from debate aimed at victory and from mere cavilling, and catalogues fallacies and tricks. Liberation follows when right knowledge removes false cognition. Joined to Vaisheshika ontology, Nyaya was developed by Udayana and transformed by Gangesha.

Life & context

Akshapada Gautama is the name tradition gives the author of the Nyaya Sutra; a legend explains “Akshapada” (“eyes in the feet”) by a thinker so lost in thought he needed eyes in his feet. Nothing reliable is known about him. The sutra grew in layers, probably reaching its present form around the 2nd–3rd century CE; some passages seem to answer Buddhist critics such as Nagarjuna, though this is debated.

Appears in

Sources: Wikidata

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